Whakapapa, genealogy and genetics

This paper provides part of an analysis of the use of the Maori term whakapapa in a study designed to test the compatibility and commensurability of views of members of the indigenous culture of New Zealand with other views of genetic technologies extant in the country. It is concerned with the narrow sense of whakapapa as denoting biological ancestry, leaving the wider sense of whakapapa as denoting cultural identity for discussion elsewhere. The phenomenon of genetic curiosity is employed to facilitate this comparison. Four levels of curiosity are identified, in the Maori data, which penetrate more or less deeply into the psyche of individuals, affecting their health and wellbeing. These phenomena are compared with non-Maori experiences and considerable commonalities are discovered together with a point of marked difference. The results raise important questions for the ethical application of genetic technologies.     

The New Zealand Kumara or sweet potato

The varieties of kumara (sweet potato,Ipomoea batatas (Linn.) Poir.) being grown by the Maoris of the North Island of New Zealand are described and classed as Maori (pre-European) or European introductions. While the number of varieties is small compared with that claimed for the early Maori, it appears from the historical evidence that the variation in pre-European stocks was limited compared with that found elsewhere in the species. The New Zealand varieties have not been induced to flower, but varieties from the Pacific Islands, southeast Asia and South America have flowered in New Zealand, and some Peruvian varieties have set seed. The interaction of climate and variety in the manifestation of sexual reproduction in the species is considered in relation to an alternative explanation for the large number of varieties attributed to the pre-European Maori. Economic characters exhibited in the New Zealand varieties could form a useful basis for a plant improvement programme.     

Maori Sport and Cultural Identity in Australia

Sport is an important aspect of cultural identity for New Zealand Maori migrants living in Australia. Maori sporting endeavours, especially at festivals such as the Taki Toa Tournament in New South Wales, often reveal distinctive Maori features of cultural performance, in the rituals prior to a game, in the spirited manner with which a game is played, and in the whânau (large/extended family) spirit of belonging and celebration that is encouraged after a game. However, notwithstanding the occasional Maori tournament or festival, Maori sporting participation in Australia is not restricted to an ‘ethnic ghetto’. Widespread Maori involvement in sport has provided an important avenue for Maori migrants to mix socially with Aboriginal and other Australians in their local communities, and to gain acceptance, respect and, in some cases, economic advancement. Many first‐generation Maori migrants display a keen sense of a New Zealand rather than an Australian identity when it comes to trans‐Tasman international sport. Transnational links are also important for Australian Maori who visit New Zealand with sporting teams and stay on various marae (tribal meeting places). The experience of ‘Maori culture’ and hospitality offered by their New Zealand kinsfolk may have a significant influence upon the sporting visitors' subsequent development of Maori cultural identity.     

Multiple identifications and the dialogical self: urban Maori youngsters and the cultural renaissance

The renaissance of Maori culture and tradition has played a significant role in the political campaigns of New Zealand's indigenous population over the past few decades. At the same time, however, it has brought to light that many Maori youngsters are unable to construct a cultural identity in terms of the discourses of culture and tradition that dominate the political arena. This article analyses the experience of urban Maori youngsters in ceremonial settings ( marae ) by examining the question of how they mediate different representations of their cultural identity within the self. It demonstrates that many young Maori people are engaged in a psychological dialogue between, on the one hand, the classic model for a Maori identity that prescribes them to embrace traditional culture and, on the other hand, their personal identification as outcasts in daily practices of New Zealand society.     

Options for enhancing forest biodiversity across New Zealand's managed landscapes based on ecosystem modelling and spatial design

In most regions of the world removal of environmental stress facilitates regeneration of native plants and habitats. However, in many of New Zealands modified landscapes, exotic species are likely to respond first to any reduction in stress because these fast-growing species are prevalent in local vegetation and dominate seed banks. Given the trend in agriculture towards intensive management on larger units, the indigenous character in New Zealand landscapes is being marginalised and there is the risk that further reduction in visibility of native vegetation may be perpetuated by a growing familiarity and identification with ubiquitous exotic species. Alternative landscapes, based on an understanding of ecosystem processes, need to be explored if biodiversity goals set by international convention and national resource management law are to be achieved. This study provides a set of predictions and pathways, backed by field observations, to underpin a restoration strategy at patch to landscape scales. A forest model, LINKNZ, is employed to simulate species succession under New Zealand conditions. The incorporation of disturbance regimes and species dispersal processes in the model permits a wide range of scenarios to be investigated encompassing indigenous forest development, exotic species interactions with indigenous forest ecosystems, management of mixed introduced-indigenous forests, and landscape dynamics. The results illustrate an approach that identifies potential biosecurity threats and provides additional options for integrating nature and production in New Zealands rural and urban landscapes.     

Kaitiakitanga: protecting New Zealand's native biodiversity

Kaitiakanga is a Maori word meaning guardianship. It is a word that has become central to New Zealand's efforts to conserve native biodiversity as well as encapsulating the new emphasis on inclusion of Maori cultural values and land concerns.     

Environmental weeds in Australia and New Zealand: issues and approaches to management

Environmental weeds are plants that invade natural ecosystems and are considered to be a serious threat to nature conservation. Australia and New Zealand, where biota with a high degree of endemism have evolved, are particularly susceptible to environmental weeds. Environmental weeds have been implicated in the extinction of several indigenous plant species, and they also threaten ecosystem stability and functional complexity. Historically, emphasis has been placed on the chemical or manual ‘control’ of weed infestations, often with little consideration of the long‐term effectiveness or the ecological consequences of such an approach. As the threat from environmental weeds is becoming more fully recognized, an integrated, strategic and ecological approach to weed management is being recommended. In both countries, systems for screening new plants before allowing entry for cultivation have been developed. For already established plants, management is conducted within a legislative and policy framework such as the Regional Pest Management Strategies that operate through the Biosecurity Act 1993 in New Zealand. Noxious weed legislation in Australia has historically focused on agricultural weeds, but some Acts are (or have recently been) undergoing revision to give greater emphasis to environmental weeds and the involvement of the community in weed management. Quarantine, legislation, research and on‐ground management are complemented by education programmes about the impact and control of environmental weeds. This paper provides an overview of the ‘tool‐kit’ needed to manage environmental weeds in Australia and New Zealand, comparing and contrasting the approaches taken in the two countries. It also provides a broad framework for the case studies that make up this special issue on the ecology and management of environmental weeds in both countries.     

Ecology and urban planning

Urban areas harbour diverse nature ranging from semi-natural habitats to wastelands, parks and other highly human-influenced biotopes with their associated species assemblages. Maintenance of this urban biodiversity for the residents and for its intrinsic value in the face of increasing population and expanding cities requires that ecological knowledge should be better integrated into urban planning. To achieve this goal understanding of ecological patterns and processes in urban ecosystems is needed. The first step in the necessary urban ecological research is to find out what kind of nature exists in cities. Second, knowledge about ecological processes important in urban nature is required. Although ecological processes in cities are the same as in rural areas, some of them, such as invasion by alien species, are more prevalent in urban than in rural conditions. Third, based on ecological knowledge, management schemes maintaining the diversity of urban nature should be designed. These procedures should also include protection of urban nature, e.g. in urban national parks. Finally, as ecology alone cannot provide the complex information about human influence on urban ecosystems, interdisciplinary research involving natural and social sciences is imperative for a holistic approach to integrating ecology into the process of urban planning.     

生态系统受威胁等级的评估标准和方法

生态系统受威胁等级评估是认识生物多样性丧失的重要手段.在2008年的第四次世界自然保护大会上,国际自然保护联盟(IUCN)成立专门工作组,着手建立类似于物种灭绝风险的定量评估方法,对生态系统受威胁等级进行评估.最终的目标是在局地、区域和全球尺度上确定生态系统的受威胁等级,建立生态系统红色名录.在制定生物多样性保护策略时,生态系统红色名录与物种红色名录可作为互补.目前,生态系统受威胁等级评估方案的评估依据包括4类:生态系统分布或生态系统功能短期衰退;生态系统分布或生态系统功能长期衰退;生态系统当前的分布狭窄、同时生态系统分布或生态系统功能衰退;生态系统当前的分布极狭窄.应用Rodríguez等(2011)建立的评估标准,基于文献记载的中国辽河三角洲4个生态系统1988年和2006年的面积,我们详细介绍了生态系统受威胁等级的评估过程.目前的评估方法面临挑战,生态系统分布范围和占有面积的估计应基于合理的空间尺度,同时还需建立合理的方法定量描述生态系统功能的变化.生态系统受威胁等级评估方案将提交2012年召开的世界自然保护大会讨论.     

The ecosystems approach to water management. The main features of the ecosystems concept

This paper summarizes the conceptual basis for ecosystemic water management, principally as it is discernible through a series of discussion papers contributed to the UN/ECE Seminar held in Oslo in May, 1991. The ecosystems approach seeks the objective management of water quality in lakes and river catchments, the sustainable exploitation of water resources (sensu lato) and the maintenance of biodiversity within aquatic catchments. It also seeks an attitude founded upon the sharing of habitat with other ecosystem components and the minimization of human impact. Moreover, there is no final condition: rather, there is an ethos always to improve performance. Emphasis is nevertheless placed on the unevolved, subclimactic state in which many ecosystems find themselves and the elasticity of structure which this imparts and which may, within limits, be exploited. Methods for assessing environmental quality and for measuring the performance of corrective management are briefly discussed. Future progress is suggested to be less than easy but proper ecosystemic attitudes and approaches are seen to be essential ingredients if past mistakes are to be overcome.     

Impacts of exotic invertebrates on New Zealand?s indigenous species and ecosystems

Biological invasions have significantly affected New Zealand?s native species and ecosystems. Most prominent are the effects of exotic mammals and plants, whereas few invertebrate invasions are known to have major effects on native ecosystems. Exceptions are the well-known cases of Vespula wasps in Nothofagus forest ecosystems and Eriococcus scale insects in Leptospermum shrublands. This limited impact is surprising because over 2000 exotic invertebrates have become established in New Zealand, among them many pests of exotic crop plants. The low impact of exotic invertebrates that invaded forests and other native ecosystems in New Zealand is in contrast to the situation in other parts of the world where many invertebrates have become important pests. We provide an overview of known invasions by exotic invertebrates in New Zealand, and explore in more detail several examples of invasive species, including herbivores, predators, parasitoids, decomposers and other groups in forests, grasslands, and other terrestrial ecosystems. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the comparative scarcity of such invasions that affect New Zealand?s indigenous ecosystems. There is a common view that New Zealand?s native species and ecosystems are inherently resistant to exotic invertebrate invaders, and there is some evidence to support this view. As a result of the high level of endemism in New Zealand?s flora, many native plants are phylogenetically distant from the host plants of many plant-feeding invaders. This provides some protection. Less host-specific plant-feeding insects, generalist predators, parasitoids and decomposers are less affected by such constraints, and these groups are perhaps more represented among the successful invaders of natural ecosystems. However, the shortage of studies on invader impacts on native species and ecosystems, compared with studies on economically important crops and production ecosystems, means that an unbiased comparison is not possible at this time. Furthermore, many invaders go through extended lag phases where their impacts are not easily noticed until they become more abundant and create more damage. Likewise, indirect effects of invaders, through more complex interactions in food webs, as well as impacts on ecosystem functions such as decomposition and pollination, are more subtle and difficult to detect without careful study. There is clearly a need for more research to determine more accurately which exotic invertebrates are already present, what their direct and indirect impacts are, and what generalisations and predictions about threats to native species and ecosystems are possible.     

中国自然保护地体系分类研究

建设自然保护地体系是为子孙后代保留生物多样性资源与自然遗产最有效的途径。自1956年我国建立第一个自然保护区以来,已建设形成覆盖森林、草地、湿地、海洋、荒漠各类生态系统,珍稀濒危动植物物种和种质资源,自然遗迹和自然景观,以及水源保护等各类自然保护地。但由于缺乏自然保护地体系的顶层设计,各类保护地面临功能区分不清晰、空间重叠、管理成效不高等问题。建设以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系的部署,为理顺我国保护地体系,明确各类保护地的功能定位提供了难得的机会。在分析我国现有自然保护地类型,并参考国际自然保护地体系分类经验的基础上,探讨了我国保护地体系分类,建议将我国自然保护地分为5大类,第I类为自然保护区,第Ⅱ类为国家公园,第Ⅲ类为自然公园,第Ⅳ类为物种与种质资源保护区,第Ⅴ类为生态功能保护区,并分析了各类自然保护地的功能定位和管理目标,以期为自然保护地体系规划建设提供参考。完善我国自然保护地体系分类,根据各类保护地的特点,创新保护地建设政策与机制,加大政府对自然保护地建设力度的同时,发挥全社会力量建设自然保护地,我国自然保护地建设将大有可为。     

Integrating a participatory process with a GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis for protected area zoning in China

Current management plans for nature reserves in China are ineffective and do not meet their intended goals of balancing conservation and development. Protected area zoning is an approach that can reduce conflict by partitioning the landscape into various land use units that are managed for different levels of human activity. In this paper, we present a systematic methodology that integrates a participatory process with Geographic Information Systems (GIS) using a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) technique to guide a zoning scheme for the Meili Snow Mountain National Park (MSMNP), Yunnan. A participatory process involving multiple stakeholders and technical experts was used to establish park management objectives: nature conservation; tourism and recreation; and, community development. To meet these three objectives, criteria and impact factors for each objective were identified and weighted through a participatory process, and a GIS fuzzy set membership function was then used to generate gradient effects of each criterion. Three suitability maps of conservation, eco-tourism, and community development were generated. The three suitability maps were overlaid to generate a final combined suitability map, and five management zones (strict protected zone, ecosystem conservation zone, eco-tourism zone or buffer zone, park service zone, and traditional land use zone) were identified and mapped that corresponded to different protection and management strategies. Conservation targets (endangered species, alpine and forest ecosystems) and development zones were spatially segregated across the landscape, and the final zoning scheme was found to be acceptable by the various stakeholders.     

Invertebrates and the complexity of tropical ecosystems

It has been estimated that there are seven million terrestrial arthropod species on Earth consisting of 6.1 million species of insects, 1.5 million of which are beetles. Tropical forests hold a majority of these species, yet few such places have been adequately sampled for alpha diversity, and there remains even more uncertainty about beta diversity. From an ecological point of view, it is the functional role of organisms within ecosystems that is the particular focus. It has been customary to classify invertebrates within ecosystems in terms of their trophic roles, but it is also useful to consider their roles in networks. In broad terms, we can classify these networks on the grounds of their basal resources. Those based directly on the photosynthetic products of plants are so-called “green” food webs, and those based on dead and dying plant material are “brown” food webs. Here, we principally discuss the diversity and functional roles of the invertebrates in tropical terrestrial ecosystems. New sampling and analytical techniques, an expanded set of focal taxa, and an enhanced concern with interactions and processes hold the promise of a productive future for invertebrate studies in the tropics. These will not only add to general understanding of the dynamics of tropical ecosystems but will also provide powerful tools for monitoring and responding to environmental change.     

An ecological and historical review of bracken (

New Zealand bracken (Pteridium esculentum) belongs to a group of closely related fern species of near global extent. Pteridium species worldwide are aggressive, highly productive, seral plants, functionally more akin to shrubs than ferns. Their deeply buried starch-rich rhizomes allow them to survive repeated fire and their efficient nutrient uptake permits exploitation of a wide range of soils. They are limited by cool annual temperatures, frost, wind, and shallow, poorly drained and acidic soils. Bracken stands accumulate large amounts of inflammable dead fronds and deep litter and often persist by facilitating fire that removes woody competitors. Bracken was present but not abundant in New Zealand before the arrival of humans. Occasional fire or other disturbances created transient opportunities for it. Rhyolitic volcanic eruptions led to short-lived expansions of bracken, and it briefly became dominant over ash-affected areas of the central North Island after the large AD 186 Taupo Tephra eruption. Andesitic eruptions had limited effects. Bracken became one of the most abundant plants in the country after the arrival of Maori in the 13th century, when massive deforestation affected most of the lowland landscape. The bracken-dominated vegetation that formed in most places immediately after burning gave way with time to fire-maintained mosaics in which bracken dominated on deeper soils and under moist, mild climates. Although Maori relied on bracken rhizome starch as a major element of their diet, food-quality rhizomes were obtained only on deep, moderately fertile soils. The dominance of bracken over very large areas was mainly a result of burning to create open landscapes for access and ease of travel. Bracken remained a troublesome weed through the European pastoral period and well into the 20th century. Bracken has a problematical role in conservation as it can form a persistent, fire-prone, low-diversity cover in drier regions. However, it is an indigenous plant that is effective in preventing erosion and, in wetter areas, it will easily suppress exotic grasses and facilitate regeneration to forest. It should be considered an essential component of landscapes conserved for their historical significance to Maori.     

Ground spider assemblages as indicators for habitat structure in inland sand ecosystems

Open inland sand ecosystems harbour a specialised flora and fauna and are among the most endangered habitats in Central Europe. Land-use changes and lack of habitat dynamics are acknowledged as significant drivers for habitat loss and degradation. It is imperative for nature conservation to obtain criteria such as community structure and biodiversity of model groups to assess the conservation value of threatened habitats. By investigating the correlation between ground spider assemblages and habitat structure, the study aimed to find out the indicator potential of spiders in order to promote conservation objectives and management strategies for open inland sand ecosystems. Non-metric multidimensional scaling revealed four habitat groups with distinct spider assemblages that clearly reflected the whole variety of habitat structure types within the study area. Species distribution was constrained by biotic and abiotic gradients while the ecological traits of spiders differed significantly among the groups. Generalised linear models showed that abundances of particular species were significantly correlated with environmental factors and habitat structure, making them thus suitable as focal species to assess natural habitat modifications as well as success of management efforts. Based on these findings, we derived major aims for successful habitat management of inland sand ecosystems taking into account also the needs of arthropod conservation. Management should include both small and large reserves when aiming for higher levels of disturbance, and sand dynamics to prevent increasing scrub encroachment and to create a larger number of early succession stages.     

生态系统保护现状及保护等级评估——以江西省为例

基于生态系统的保护是防止生物多样性丧失的重要手段,已成为保护生物学研究的热点。对生态系统保护等级进行划分,确定局域、区域和全球尺度上生态系统保护的优先性,可为制定生态系统保护方案提供重要依据。目前,生态系统保护等级划分的常用指标包括面积流失率、幅度和代表性。以江西省生态系统为例,基于20世纪80年代的江西省植被图、生态系统图、2010年土地利用图和自然保护区图,在GIS环境下进行图层叠加运算和重分类,再进行定量评估和归一化,将江西省生态系统划分为极重要、重要和一般3个级别。结果表明:过去的30年间江西省自然生态系统面积共减少了82613.83km2,减少率超过了60%。全省的37个自然生态系统类型中有19个类型建有国家级自然保护区,但得到保护的面积比例较低。森林生态系统中极重要、重要和一般生态系统类型分别占省国土面积的16.7374%、5.5310%和3.8242%,受国家级自然保护区保护的比例分别为0.51%、3.73%和5.76%;灌丛生态系统中极重要、重要和一般生态系统类型分别占0.0975%、0.9335%和0.0100%,保护比例分别为1.72%、0.17%和0.70%;草地生态系统中极重要、重要和一般生态系统类型分别占0.2647%、0.0005%和0.1064%,保护比例分别为0.21%、0.00%和3.49%;湿地生态系统中极重要、重要和一般生态系统类型分别占0.3532%、0.0345%和1.5650%,保护比例分别为1.87%、0.00%和18.01%。从各级生态系统空间分布来看,极重要生态系统分布范围最广,主要分布在江西省的东南部和西北部;重要生态系统主要分布在西北部和东北部;一般生态系统分布范围最小,主要分布在北部。中部地区的自然生态系统多数由于经济发展而退变为农田、城市等人工生态系统。结合江西省生态系统现状,将极重要的生态系统作为重点保护范围,因而占江西省国土面积17.46%的生态系统应该得到优先保护。这一结果为有效地开展生态系统管理,制定有针对性的生态系统的保护规划具有重要参考价值。     

Development of a Tool to Facilitate Participation of Maori in the Management of Stream and River Health

A cultural health index (CHI) for streams was developed in a program of collaborative research involving members of Ngai Tahu (an iwi [tribe] within the South Island of New Zealand) and ecologists at Otago University. The aim was to provide a tool for effective participation of Maori in resource management decisions. Five cultural values are of central importance to the nature of the CHI: mauri (spiritual life force), mahinga kai (traditional resource harvesting), kaitiakitanga (guardianship obligation), ki uta ki tai (mountains-to-the-sea holistic philosophy), and wai taonga waters that are treasured). The CHI has three components. Forty-six stream sites in two culturally important river catchments were first classified according to whether there is a traditional association with Maori. The second component assessed the historical and contemporary mahinga kai status of the site, including questions of legal and physical access. The third component was a Cultural Stream Health Measure (CSHM) that encapsulates indicators of catchment, riparian, and instream condition in a manner that is consistent with Maori values. The CSHM was found to be significantly correlated with western measures of stream health commonly used in New Zealand (Macroinvertebrate Community Index, Stream Health Monitoring and Assessment Kit), and performed at least as well in encapsulating the relationship between land development and stream health. We describe a multistep process by which other indigenous people can develop a cultural ecosystem health measure, and then use the tool to ensure a substantial role in decision making with the agency in charge.     

Evaluating management options for aquatic invasive species: concepts and methods

In analyses that attempt to estimate the costs of species invasions, it has been typical to report the costs of management and/or to multiply per-unit costs by the number affected to arrive at a total. These estimates are of limited value for most policy questions. We start our discussion by recognizing that biological pollutants such as aquatic invasive species are like conventional pollutants in important ways and appeal to the well-developed literature on conventional pollution to guide our thinking into how best to conceptualize the problem. We use a standard pollution control framework to identify the margins over which costs and benefits should be estimated to guide wise decision-making. We then use examples from the literature to illustrate how transactions in related markets can be used to estimate the benefits of management. The roles of adaptation, mitigation, and species population growth have particular relevance and are highlighted. In the final section of the paper, we think through the conditions under which investing in genetic biocontrol methods would be economically justified.