Effects of Fertility Control on Behavior and Disease Transmission in Brushtail Possums

Abstract: Fertility control is currently under development for the control of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), one of New Zealand's most serious vertebrate pests. Despite intensive research into various methods for achieving infertility, including immunocon-traception and disrupting endocrine control of reproduction, researchers know little about the potential effects of these methods on the behavior of wild possums. We assessed the effects of surgically imposed sterility, either to block fertilization (tubal ligation) or to disrupt endocrine control of fertility (gonadectomy), by using radiotelemetry on the movement patterns and site fidelity of wild brushtail possums. In addition, we assessed the effect of gonadectomy on the transmission rate of a commonly occurring, directly transmitted pathogen in possums, Leptospira interrogans serovar balcanica (hereafter L. balcanica), to determine the effect of any behavioral changes on possum contact rates. Both tubal ligation and gonadectomy of females did not appear to have any appreciable effect on behavior, with sterilized females having space-use patterns and fidelity to seasonal breeding ranges similar to those of fertile females. However, gonadectomy of male possums resulted in a significant reduction of 42% and 47% in the 95% and 70% isopleth seasonal breeding ranges, respectively. Furthermore, the transmission rate of L. balcanica in gonadectomized male and female possums was reduced by 88% and 63%, respectively, compared with that in fertile male and female possums. Overall, these results suggest that fertility control, either by blocking fertilization (e.g., immunocontraception) or by disrupting endocrine control of reproduction (e.g., gonadotropin-releasing hormone vaccines), is unlikely to have an impact on social organization and behavior of brushtail possums in ways that may compromise the efficacy of fertility control for reducing population density. However, the reduction in the transmission rate of L. balcanica indicates that fertility control that interferes with endocrine control of reproduction is likely to reduce the contact rate between possums. This could have implications for the control of other wildlife diseases requiring direct contact for transmission.     

Control of the Cranio-Cervical System During Feeding in Birds

The avian neck is a complex, kinematically redundant system,which plays a role during inter alia food prehension and manipulation.Kinematical analysis shows that chickens (Gallus domesticus)move their vertebrae according to a geometric principle thatmaximizes angular rotation efficiency. The movement patternshows simultaneous rotations in some joints, while not in theothers. Anseriformes show a pattern of successive, rather thansimultaneous rotations in the rostral part of the neck. A kinematicalmodel indicates that the geometric principle produces an anseriform-likepattern only if a constraint on the movement of the caudal vertebraeis introduced. The strength of this constraint, required fora realistic simulation, is related to the amount of stretchin the long dorsal neck muscles (M. biventer and M. longus collidorsalis), which have a different configuration in Anseriformescompared to the chicken. To investigate whether the differencein movement pattern is a result of differences in anatomy only,or also of differences in neuromotor patterns, the EMG-patternsof the neck muscles of the mallard and chicken during drinkingand pecking were studied. Considerable overlap in the activityof antagonists is found in mallards, but not in chickens. Musclesin the rostral part of the neck are activated successively inmallards, but simultaneously in chickens. We conclude that thedifference in movement patterning between chickens and Anseriformes,results from both a difference in the control system of theneck, and a difference in the anatomy. The anseriform patternis found in water as well as on land, which suggests that neckmovement in both environments is controlled by the same neuromotorpatterns. The modifications in motor control system and anatomyof the Anseriformes may have evolved as an adaptation to aquaticfeeding, since the anseriform pattern is energetically morebeneficial in an aquatic environment than on land.     

Male-Biased Predation and Its Effect on Paternity Skew and Life History in a Population of Common Brushtail Possums (Trichosurus vulpecula)

Differences in predation risk may exert strong selective pressures on life history strategies of populations. We investigated the potential for predation to shape male mating strategies in an arboreal folivore, the common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula Kerr). We predicted that possums in a tropical population exposed to high natural levels of predation would grow faster and reproduce earlier compared to those in temperate populations with lower predation. We trapped a population of possums in eucalypt woodland in northern Australia each month to measure life history traits and used microsatellites to genotype all individuals and assign paternity to all offspring. We observed very high levels of male-biased predation, with almost 60% of marked male possums being eaten by pythons, presumably as a result of their greater mobility due to mate-searching. Male reproductive success was also highly skewed, with younger, larger males fathering significantly more offspring. This result contrasts with previous studies of temperate populations experiencing low levels of predation, where older males were larger and the most reproductively successful. Our results suggest that in populations exposed to high levels of predation, male possums invest in increased growth earlier in life, in order to maximise their mating potential. This strategy is feasible because predation limits competition from older males and means that delaying reproduction carries a risk of failing to reproduce at all. Our results show that life histories are variable traits that can match regional predation environments in mammal species with widespread distributions.     

Assessing Movements of Brushtail Possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) in Relation to Depopulated Buffer Zones for the Management of Wildlife Tuberculosis in New Zealand

In New Zealand, managing the threat of bovine tuberculosis (TB) to livestock includes population reduction of potentially infectious wildlife, primarily the brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula). Population control is often targeted on forested buffer zones adjacent to farmland, in order to limit movements of possums across the buffer and reduce the risk of disease transmission to livestock. To assess the effectiveness of buffers in protecting livestock we analysed GPS telemetry data from possums located in untreated forest adjacent to buffers, and used these data to characterise patterns of movement that could lead to possums reaching farmland during the season when most dispersal occurs. Analyses of movement data showed that the direction of dispersal by sub-adult and adult possums and the extent of long exploratory movements were not biased toward forest buffers, even though these provided vacant habitat as suitable for possums as untreated forest. Instead, dispersal and exploratory movements were uncommon even for sub-adult possums and such events typically lasted <10 days. Dispersing possums settled predominantly in river valleys. A simulation model was developed for the 3-6-month dispersal season; it demonstrated a probability of <0.001 that an infected possum, originating from a low-density population with low disease prevalence in untreated forest, would move across 3 km of recently controlled forest buffer to reach farmland. Our results indicate short-term reduction in the risk of TB transmission from possums to livestock in New Zealand by the use of depopulated buffer zones, while acknowledging that the threat of disease spread from untreated forest is likely to increase over time as possum population density and, potentially, TB prevalence among those possums, increase in the buffer zone.     

Suitability of Aerially Sown Artificial Baits as a Technique for Poisoning Feral Goats

The preferences of a captive herd of goats with feral ancestry were evaluated for 11 artificial pest control baits and commercial stock feed pellets. A commercial stock food pellet (based on barley, bran, and oats) was the most preferred basic bait. A mixture of 2% diced Griselinia littoralis (broadleaf) leaves (a preferred natural food plant) and 2% molasses (per weight of basic bait) increased palatability of this basic bait. The best lured bait was aerially sown at I kg ha(-1) in a 380 ha area with about 50 feral goats. Only 25% of the goats were shown by the biological tracer iophenoxic acid to have eaten baits after 8 days. We conclude that one-hit aerial poisoning of goats is unlikely to be effective as a control method because most goats are unlikely to eat food from off the ground.     

Feeding Behavior, Aggression, and the Conservation Biology of Flamingos: Integrating Studies of Captive and Free-ranging Birds

SYNOPSIS. Flamingos (Aves, Phoenicopteridae) represent an ancientlineage of long-legged, microphagous, colonial wading birds.Although often perceived as tropical, flamingo distributionis more closely tied to the great deserts of the world, andto hypersaline sites, than it is to equatorial regions. Manyaspects of flamingo behavior and ecology can be studied in captivity.Experimental studies involving captive birds, when combinedwith observational studies of free-ranging birds, offer researchersopportunities to address questions that are unanswerable withfield work alone. Zoo populations of flamingos are prime candidatesfor such studies. Here, we use samples of our own work to illustrate the synergisticeffects of combining zoo and field research. Our first exampledescribes how studies of salt tolerance in captive birds areplaying a key role in assessing the impact of salt as an ecologicaldeterminant of flamingo distribution. Our second example describeshow aggression and dominance interactions affect the feedingbehavior of flamingos. We assess the implications of this researchin terms of both avicultural practices and the fundamental ecologyof the birds. We believe that similar collaborations involvingother zoo animals would yield comparatively productive results.     

Effect of Removal from the Family Group on Feeding Behavior by Captive Callithrix jacchus

Common marmosets are omnivorous primates with a highly diversified diet. There is no study describing if and how the diet is learned. Infants get their first bits of solid food from other monkeys in the group, which suggests that they may need an introduction to food items by older individuals before including them in their diet. We assessed the acceptance of novel and familiar food items by common marmosets, both isolated and in their family groups. We tested adult, subadults and juveniles from 5 captive families while isolated and in their family groups. The test consisted of presenting for 10 min novel and familiar food items to isolated individuals or to the whole family. We recorded the latency to start eating and the number of food items ingested. When isolated, adults ate more novel and familiar food items than juveniles did. They also started eating sooner than juveniles did. When tested alone, all juveniles, except one, never tasted novel food, and juveniles ingested fewer familiar food items than adults did. When tested in their family groups, juveniles ingested more familiar and novel food than when they were isolated. Our results suggest that: 1. juvenile common marmosets show more food neophobia than adults do, especially when alone; 2. the family group may facilitate the acceptance of novel food items by juveniles; 3. the family group, besides promoting the acceptance of novel food, may also increase its ingestion; and 4. dietary acquisition in Callithrix jacchus involves social facilitation.     

鸟类的食物多样性及其取食适应

介绍了鸟类为取食各种不同的食物而在进化中形成的形态、生理和行为以及这几种类型鸟类的取食适应。     

Intraguild Predation and Feeding Preferences in Three Species of Phytoseiid Mite Used for Biological Control

The ecological impact of introduced biological control agents on native species of arthropods is a matter of considerable debate. This study investigated the ability of the non-native predatory mite Neoseiulus californicus to feed on the native Typhlodromus pyri and vice versa, as both species now co-occur in UK orchards. Typhlodromips montdorensis is a candidate for introduction into the UK as a glasshouse biological control agent. The ability of T. montdorensis to feed on the widely used N. californicus was investigated to identify possible intraguild predation, which might influence the effectiveness of either or both species as predators of Tetranychus urticae. Both N. californicus and T. pyri consumed larval stages of each other, but in choice experiments both showed a preference for T. urticae. Both N. californicus and T. montdorensis also fed on each other, but whereas N. californicus again showed a preference for T. urticae, T. montdorensis fed equally on T. urticae and N. californicus. Interactions between N. californicus and T. pyri and N. californicus and T. montdorensis are discussed in relation to their effectiveness as biological control agents in the glasshouse and the natural control of spider mite in the field.     

东洞庭湖地区野禽驯养繁殖基地的禽流感病毒调查

为了解东洞庭湖地区野禽驯养繁殖基地禽流感病毒感染状况,2011年11月至2013年10月,调查4家野禽驯养繁殖基地的养殖情况,同时采集环境标本(包括新鲜粪便标本和水标本)。利用PCR和病毒分离方法对标本进行检测。部分标本进行了核酸检测,禽流感病毒(AIV)阳性率为36.62%,2012年3月份阳性率最高(47.83%)。粪便标本、水标本的AIV阳性率分别为40.45%、30.19%,二者无统计学差异。共分离到28株AIV病毒,亚型包括H10、H4、H5和N7、N8,集中于11~12月的标本,主要来源于君山区野禽驯养繁殖基地的雁类和野鸭的新鲜粪便标本。野禽驯养基地的环境标本中存在AIV病毒,以A(H10N7)为主,建议对其进行定期监测。     

陕西圈养珍稀野生动物肠道寄生虫感染及其形态观察

2007年11～12月对陕西省珍稀野生动物抢救饲养研究中心中的珍稀野生动物进行了寄生虫感染情况及其种类、形态的观察.采用生理盐水涂片法、碘液染色法对18种75头/只野生动物的粪便进行检查,对检出的寄生虫进行数码显微摄片.结果共检出11种寄生虫,总感染率为88.9%,以芽囊原虫(Blaaocyais sp.)、阿米巴原虫感染较为突出.     

佛坪自然保护区食竹鸟兽种类的初步调查

1991~2004年采用检查死亡个体的胃或嗉囊内容物、新鲜粪便和在野外直接观察动物采食的3种方法,在陕西佛坪国家级自然保护区对食竹的鸟兽种类进行了初步调查。巴山木竹和秦岭箭竹是大熊猫采食的主要食物资源。除大熊猫外,采食这两种竹的鸟兽有38种,隶属6目14科,其中鸟类9种,兽类29种。大量采食、中等采食和少量采食竹类的物种分别为1种、5种和33种,所占比例分别为2.6%、12.8%和84.6%。39种鸟兽均采食竹笋,其中32种只采食竹笋。黑熊和野猪是食竹笋量比较大的大型兽类,羚牛、鬣羚和斑羚3种牛科动物全年都采食竹类,其中以羚牛对竹叶的采食量最大。这些食竹鸟兽一方面直接与大熊猫竞争食物资源,特别是竹笋,另外也会间接地影响大熊猫对竹类的利用。     

The Control of Color in Birds

SYNOPSIS. The colors of birds result from deposition of pigments—mainlymelanins and carotenoids—in integumentary structures,chiefly the feathers. The plumages of birds indicate their age,sex, and mode of living, and play important roles in camouflage,mating, and establishment of territories. Since feathers aredead structures, change of color of feathers is effected throughdivestment (molt) and replacement. The color and pattern ofa feather are determined by the interplay of genetic and hormonalinfluences prevailing in its base during regeneration. Mostbirds replace their feathers at least once annually. Some wearthe same kind of basic plumage all the time butothers alternatea basic and breeding plumage, either in one (the male) or bothsexes. Still others may have more than two molts, adding supplementalplumage at certain times in the plumage cycle. The varietiesof patterns of molt, the kinds of plumage, and the colors andpatterns of feathers among birds apparently are the result ofseveral kinds of selection pressures working through evolution.     

A Behaviorally-Explicit Approach for Delivering Vaccine Baits to Mesopredators to Control Epizootics in Fragmented Landscapes

Despite the widespread use of aerial baiting to manage epizootics among free-ranging populations, particularly in rabies management, bait acceptance and seroconversion rates often are lower than required to eliminate spread of disease. Our objectives in this study, therefore, were to evaluate the performance of stratified bait distribution models derived from resource selection functions (RSF) on uptake of placebo rabies baits by raccoons (Procyon lotor) and Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), as well as the probability of bait uptake as a function of proximity to bait distribution areas in fragmented agricultural ecosystems. Among 478 raccoons and 108 opossums evaluated for presence of Rhodamine B (RB) across 8 sites, only 26% of raccoons and 20% of opossums exhibited marking consistent with bait consumption 14–24 days post-baiting. The effective area treated, based on 90% kernel density estimators of marked individuals, ranged from 99–240 ha larger than bait distribution zones, with RB marked individuals captured up to 753m beyond the bait zone. Despite incorporation of RSF data into bait distribution models, no differences in uptake rates were observed between treatment and control sites. These data likely reflect the underlying constraints imposed by the loss and fragmentation of habitat on animal movement in heterogeneous landscapes, forcing individuals to optimize movements at coarse (i.e., patch-level) rather than fine spatial scales in highly fragmented environments. Our data also confirm that the probability of bait acceptance decreases with increasing distance from bait zone interiors, even within the zone itself. Thus, although bait acceptance was confirmed beyond bait zone boundaries, the proportion of vaccinated individuals may comprise a small minority of the population at increasing distances from baiting interiors. These data suggest focal baiting creates a buffered area of treated individuals around bait zones or bait stations, but repeated treatments may be needed to achieve sufficient uptake to eradicate disease.     

'Natural experiment' Demonstrates Top-Down Control of Spiders by Birds on a Landscape Level

The combination of small-scale manipulative experiments and large-scale natural experiments provides a powerful approach for demonstrating the importance of top-down trophic control on the ecosystem scale. The most compelling natural experiments have come from studies examining the landscape-scale loss of apex predators like sea otters, wolves, fish and land crabs. Birds are dominant apex predators in terrestrial systems around the world, yet all studies on their role as predators have come from small-scale experiments; the top-down impact of bird loss on their arthropod prey has yet to be examined at a landscape scale. Here, we use a unique natural experiment, the extirpation of insectivorous birds from nearly all forests on the island of Guam by the invasive brown tree snake, to produce the first assessment of the impacts of bird loss on their prey. We focused on spiders because experimental studies showed a consistent top-down effect of birds on spiders. We conducted spider web surveys in native forest on Guam and three nearby islands with healthy bird populations. Spider web densities on the island of Guam were 40 times greater than densities on islands with birds during the wet season, and 2.3 times greater during the dry season. These results confirm the general trend from manipulative experiments conducted in other systems however, the effect size was much greater in this natural experiment than in most manipulative experiments. In addition, bird loss appears to have removed the seasonality of spider webs and led to larger webs in at least one spider species in the forests of Guam than on nearby islands with birds. We discuss several possible mechanisms for the observed changes. Overall, our results suggest that effect sizes from smaller-scale experimental studies may significantly underestimate the impact of bird loss on spider density as demonstrated by this large-scale natural experiment.     

Models and Evidence for Feeding Control of Energy

The value of optimization theory is to provide falsifiable hypothesesand, when appropriate, alternative models of resource regulation.A consideration of alternatives suggests optimal energy regulationthrough feeding depends on time scale and supplies of energyrelativeto demands. Maximization (on-off) control of energyreserves occurs over short intervals involved in consumption,while proportional control occurs over longer intervals (betweenmeals) or as a consequence of trade-offs between energy regulationand nutrient or predation constraints. Maximization of rateof net energy gain occurs most frequently when energy suppliesare low relative to demands and when energy and nutrients arenot associated. This may be typical for small endothermic nectarfeeders, while proportional controls are characteristic of feedingbehaviors for many other animals. Controls for regulating energycontent must also be affected by external environmental variationwhich may require use of "rules of thumb" that approximate themaximum rate of return.     

Impacts of Aerial 1080 Poisoning on the Birds of Rangitoto Island, Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand

Bird populations were monitored for one year (October 1990- October 1991) to determine whether the 1080 poison used to eradicate possums and wallabies on Rangitoto Island had had any detrimental effects on them. There was no significant decline in bird numbers recorded immediately after poisoning, with four species increasing in abundance (P <0.001). Twelve months after the operation the abundance of four species had increased significantly (P <0.001). The poisoning does not appear to have had any negative effect on the bird populations of Rangitoto, while the removal of browsing mammals may in future prove to have beneficial effects.