作用于烟碱乙酰胆碱受体的α~*-芋螺毒素研究进展

芋螺毒素(conotoxin,conopeptide,CTx)是由热带海洋中的肉食性软体动物芋螺分泌产生的一大类生物活性肽,它们相对分子质量小,能特异地作用于动物体内各种离子通道和受体,具有巨大的药物开发价值。其中,A-超家族的α-芋螺毒素(α-CTx)是发现最早的且最重要的一类成员,它能特异性作用于烟碱型乙酰胆碱受体(nicotinic acetylcholine receptors,nAChRs),是肌肉或神经型nAChRs的选择性阻断剂。nAChRs与中枢神经系统紊乱如疼痛、成瘾、癌症等多种疾病密切相关。近年来,人们陆续发现其他超家族的芋螺毒素中也有成员可阻断nAChRs,如αA-、αB-、αO-、αC-、αD-、αS-等家族的芋螺毒素。上述能阻断nAChRs的芋螺毒素统称为α~*-芋螺毒素(α~*-CTx)。α~*-芋螺毒素对nAChRs阻断活性的差别与它们的结构有着密切的联系。结合国内外研究现状,对α~*-CTx与nAChRs相互作用的关键位点以及结构与功能的关系进行综述,可为相关研究提供参考。     

A-超家族芋螺毒素研究进展

芋螺毒素作为生物毒素中一个新的研究领域,其是一种很有价值的药物,目前常研究的有A-超家族芋螺毒素、O-超家族芋螺毒素、M-超家族芋螺毒素等,其中A-超家族芋螺毒素研究的时间最长,是目前掌握的较为完全的芋螺毒素家族之一,其具有强专一性、高丰度性、化学多样性等特点使得其成为药物学上的研究重点,其已经运用在临床治疗各个领域,为了进一步的研究A-超家族芋螺毒素在医学领域的作用,本文主要分析了A-超家族芋螺毒素的研究情况,以期为医学发展提供帮助。     

新芋螺毒素基因的克隆及其遗传进化分析

全世界有约800种芋螺,每种芋螺产生多达2 000种的肽类毒素,这些毒素可以作用于电压门控离子通道(Na+,K+,Ca2+)、配体门控离子通道(n ACh Rs,5-HT3R,NMDAR)、G蛋白偶联受体(神经降压素和血管加压素)和神经递质转运蛋白。虽然已有大量的芋螺毒素通过毒液分离、c DNA克隆和转录组测序获得,但已发现的芋螺毒素不足其总量的0.5%。A-超家族中α-芋螺毒素基因结构包含了一个内含子和被该内含子分开的两个外显子,成熟肽具有标准的4个半胱氨酸骨架(CC-C-C)。本研究利用具有保守性的α-芋螺毒素基因内含子序列,采用多个PCR退火温度,从海南产疣缟芋螺中克隆到了1个新的具有6个半胱氨酸骨架(CC-C-C-CC)的M-超家族芋螺毒素基因和1个含有5个半胱氨酸新颖骨架(CC-C-C-C)的未知新家族芋螺毒素,并对它们的基因结构、成熟肽序列,以及与其他M-超家族芋螺毒素的遗传进化关系进行了深入分析。首次证实保守的α-芋螺毒素基因内含子序列可能存在于其他超家族中。     

新的J超家族芋螺毒素的克隆与进化分析

目的:从中国南海芋螺中克隆新的J超家族芋螺毒素,并进行序列和进化分析。方法:以芋螺毒腺管总RNA为模板,采用3′-RACE及巢式PCR的方法扩增J超家族芋螺毒素基因,并将得到的目的基因与pMD18-T载体连接并转化大肠杆菌DH5α,经测序比对后,获得新的J超家族毒素,利用软件BioEdit、ClustalX及Mega5.05进行进化分析。结果:获得12个新的J超家族芋螺毒素前体肽序列,其氨基酸组成具有新颖性,在进化树上与已报道的J超家族毒素处于不同的进化分支。结论:12个新的J超家族毒素与已报道的毒素序列之间的同源性较低,是J超家族新成员。     

M-超家族芋螺毒素研究进展

芋螺毒素是来源于芋螺毒液的活性多肽,具有分子质量小,作用靶点广泛且特异性高的优点,是一种丰富的生物资源。M-超家族芋螺毒素是芋螺毒素中较为复杂的超家族之一,包括μ-、ψ-和κM-家族,分别作用于电压门控钠通道、N型乙酰胆碱受体和电压门控钾通道。另外,mr3a和tx3c的发现预示M-超家族可能存在新的家族。本文对这些芋螺毒素的生理学和药理学特征、结构与功能的关系及应用研究进行综述。     

O-超家族芋螺毒素研究进展

O-超家族芋螺毒素是芋螺毒素中较复杂的超家族之一,它包括δ、μO-、ω-、κ-等若干成员,通常由24-33个氨基酸组成,具有相同的三对二硫键骨架,形成ICK模体,能特异性作用于电压门控离子通道。本文主要对该芋螺毒素生物化学及分子遗传学特征、生理学和药理学特征、结构与性能的关系及应用研究与前景等进行综述。     

Ⅰ-超家族芋螺毒素研究进展

Ⅰ-超家族芋螺毒素是芋螺毒素中较复杂的超家族之一,它可分为Ⅰ1和Ⅰ2两组．通常由33～46个氨基酸所组成．具有相同的4对半胱氨酸骨架,可特异性作用于各种离子通道及受体．现对该芋螺毒素的生物化学及分子生物学特征、生理学活性、结构与功能的关系及应用前景等方面的研究进行综述．     

中国南海堂皇芋螺毒素基因克隆及两个毒素的合成及活性研究

目的 研究中国南海堂皇芋螺(Conus imperialis)毒素基因序列,为毒素功能研究奠定基础。方法 采用Trizol法提取堂皇芋螺毒腺管的总RNA,应用3’端快速扩增cDNA末端(3’RACE)及巢式PCR技术,获得A、O、J超家族芋螺毒素新序列;或以A家族高度保守的内含子及3’端非翻译区(3’UTR)设计引物,克隆出新的α-芋螺毒素新序列。选择合成毒素ImIIA及Im1.2,测定ImIIA二硫键的连接方式,并测定两种毒素对神经型烟碱乙酰胆碱受体(nAChR)的抑制活性。结果 获得11条毒素前体肽序列,分属A、O1、O2、J3等超家族,其中Im1.95为已报道芋螺毒素,其余为新发现芋螺毒素。ImIIA二硫键连接方式为少见的“C1-C2,C3-C4”,10μmol/L Im1.2、ImIIA对α2β2、α2β4、α4β2、α3β2、α3β4 5个nAChR亚型抑制活性较低。结论 通过基因克隆方法,从堂皇芋螺中获得了11个芋螺毒素,其中10个为新序列,属于A、O1、O2、J3等超家族毒素,Im1.2、ImIIA对神经型nAChR各受体亚型活性较低。     

新芋螺毒素S03的活性与折叠的关系

利用O－超家族芋螺毒素具有保守信号肽编码序列的特性,采用RACE方法,对线纹芋螺O－超家族芋螺毒素的cDNA进行克隆、序列测定,并经化学合成,获得一种新型高活性芋螺多肽毒素SO3。该肽含25个氨基酸残基,其序列为CKAAGKPCSRIAYNCCTGSCRSGKC－NH2,有三对二硫键。对其进行了正确折叠及活性筛选。结果表明,该肽折叠主峰对小鼠脑内给药100ng,可明显观察到小鼠颤抖现象,对小鼠有明显的镇痛作用,而非正确折叠则无反应。     

织锦芋螺毒素的研究进展

芋螺毒素是来源于芋螺的毒液的活性多肽,由于其分子质量小、结构多样、作用靶点广泛、功能专一、组织特异性强等优点,广泛地被用作细胞中各种具有重要生理功能靶点的探针,以及作为新药的先导化合物甚至直接作为新药开发.芋螺可以分为食鱼、食软体动物和食虫3种类型,织锦芋螺是一种分布广泛的食软体动物芋螺.作为毒性最强的芋螺品种之一,织锦芋螺毒素成为食软体动物类芋螺毒素研究的代表.现对20世纪90年代末至今的织锦芋螺毒素方面的研究进行了综述.     

The A-superfamily of conotoxins: structural and functional divergence

The generation of functional novelty in proteins encoded by a gene superfamily is seldom well documented. In this report, we define the A-conotoxin superfamily, which is widely expressed in venoms of the predatory cone snails (Conus), and show how gene products that diverge considerably in structure and function have arisen within the same superfamily. A cDNA clone encoding alpha-conotoxin GI, the first conotoxin characterized, provided initial data that identified the A-superfamily. Conotoxin precursors in the A-superfamily were identified from six Conus species: most (11/16) encoded alpha-conotoxins, but some (5/16) belong to a family of excitatory peptides, the kappaA-conotoxins that target voltage-gated ion channels. alpha-Conotoxins are two-disulfide-bridged nicotinic antagonists, 13-19 amino acids in length; kappaA-conotoxins are larger (31-36 amino acids) with three disulfide bridges. Purification and biochemical characterization of one peptide, kappaA-conotoxin MIVA is reported; five of the other predicted conotoxins were previously venom-purified. A comparative analysis of conotoxins purified from venom, and their precursors reveal novel post-translational processing, as well as mutational events leading to polymorphism. Patterns of sequence divergence and Cys codon usage define the major superfamily branches and suggest how these separate branches arose.     

Identification of host cell factors required for intoxication through use of modified cholera toxin

We describe a novel labeling strategy to site-specifically attach fluorophores, biotin, and proteins to the C terminus of the A1 subunit (CTA1) of cholera toxin (CTx) in an otherwise correctly assembled and active CTx complex. Using a biotinylated N-linked glycosylation reporter peptide attached to CTA1, we provide direct evidence that ~12% of the internalized CTA1 pool reaches the ER. We also explored the sortase labeling method to attach the catalytic subunit of diphtheria toxin as a toxic warhead to CTA1, thus converting CTx into a cytolethal toxin. This new toxin conjugate enabled us to conduct a genetic screen in human cells, which identified ST3GAL5, SLC35A2, B3GALT4, UGCG, and ELF4 as genes essential for CTx intoxication. The first four encode proteins involved in the synthesis of gangliosides, which are known receptors for CTx. Identification and isolation of the ST3GAL5 and SLC35A2 mutant clonal cells uncover a previously unappreciated differential contribution of gangliosides to intoxication by CTx.     

Intraovarian Transplantation of Female Germline Stem Cells Rescue Ovarian Function in Chemotherapy-Injured Ovaries

Early menopause and infertility often occur in female cancer patients after chemotherapy (CTx). For these patients, oocyte/embryo cryopreservation or ovarian tissue cryopreservation is the current modality for fertility preservation. However, the above methods are limited in the long-term protection of ovarian function, especially for fertility preservation (very few females with cancer have achieved pregnancy with cryopreserved ovarian tissue or eggs until now). In addition, the above methods are subject to their scope (females with no husband or prepubertal females with no mature oocytes). Thus, many females who suffer from cancers would not adopt the above methods pre- and post-CTx due to their uncertainty, safety and cost-effectiveness. Therefore, millions of women have achieved long-term survival after thorough CTx treatment and have desired to rescue their ovarian function and fertility with economic, durable and reliable methods. Recently, some studies showed that mice with infertility caused by CTx can produce normal offspring through intraovarian injection of exogenous female germline stem cells (FGSCs). Though exogenous FGSC can be derived from mice without immune rejection in the same strain, it is difficult to obtain human female germline stem cells (hFGSCs), and immune rejection could occur between different individuals. In this study, infertility in mice was caused by CTx, and the ability of FGSCs to restore ovarian function or even produce offspring was assessed. We had successfully isolated and purified the FGSCs from adult female mice two weeks after CTx. After infection with GFP-carrying virus, the FGSCs were transplanted into ovaries of mice with infertility caused by CTx. Finally, ovarian function was restored and the recipients produced offspring long-term. These findings showed that mice with CTx possessed FGSCs, restoring ovarian function and avoiding immune rejection from exogenous germline stem cells.     

Evidence for stimulation of adenylyl cyclase by an activated G(s) heterotrimer in cell membranes: an experimental method for controlling the G(s) subunit composition of cell membranes

Heterotrimeric (alphabetagamma) G(s) mediates agonist-induced stimulation of adenylyl cyclase (AC). Cholera toxin (CTx) will ADP-ribosylate the alpha-subunit of G(s) (G(s)alpha). G(s)alpha-deficient cyc(-) membranes were "stripped" of Gbeta. When the stripped cyc(-) were incubated with G(s)alpha and/or Gbetagamma, each was incorporated into the membranes independently of the other. Both G(s)alpha and Gbetagamma had to be present in the membranes, and they had to be able to form a heterotrimer in order for CTx to ADP-ribosylate G(s)alpha, indicating that the membrane bound G(s) heterotrimer is a substrate for CTx, but the G(s)alpha subunit by itself is not. When G(s)alpha was completely and irreversibly activated with GTPgammaS and incorporated into stripped cyc(-), it was a poor substrate for CTx and a weak stimulator of AC unless Gbetagamma was also incorporated. Furthermore, the level of AC stimulation corresponded to the amount of G(s) heterotrimer that was formed in the membranes from GTPgammaS-activated G(s)alpha and Gbetagamma. These data suggest that AC is stimulated by an activated G(s) heterotrimer in cell membranes.     

The ligand binding profiles of estrogen receptors alpha and beta are species dependent

Estrogens and selective estrogen receptor modulators are used for the treatment and prevention of conditions resulting from menopause. Since estrogens exert their activity by binding to nuclear receptors, there is intense interest in developing new ligands for the two known estrogen receptor subtypes, ER-alpha and ER-beta. Characterization assays used to profile new estrogen receptor ligands often utilize receptors from different species, with the assumption that they behave identically. To test this belief, we have profiled a number of estrogens, other steroids, phytoestrogens and selective estrogen receptor modulators in a solid phase radioligand binding assay using recombinant protein for human, rat, and mouse ER-alpha and ER-beta. Certain compounds show species dependent binding preferences for ER-alpha or ER-beta, leading to differences in receptor subtype selectivity. The amino acids identified by crystallography as lining the ligand binding cavity are the same among the three species, suggesting that as yet unidentified amino acids contribute to the structure of the binding site. We conclude from this analysis that the ability of a compound to selectively bind to a particular ER subtype can be species dependent.     

Serum osteoprotegerin and RANKL are not specifically altered in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis treated with teriparatide or risedronate: a randomized, controlled trial.

Risedronate and teriparatide have opposite actions on the osteoblast-osteoclast dipole and are expected to influence the RANK/RANKL/osteoprotegerin (OPG) system. We aimed to evaluate changes in serum OPG and RANKL after risedronate or teriparatide administration in postmenopausal osteoporotic women. Seventy-four postmenopausal Caucasian women (age 64.1+/-1.0 years) were studied. Women with osteopenia served as controls (group 1, n=30). Women with osteoporosis were randomly assigned to either risedronate 35 mg once weekly (group 2, n=21) or teriparatide 20 microg once daily (group 3, n=23) for six months. Blood samples for serum RANKL, OPG, N-terminal propeptide of type 1 collagen (P1NP), and C-terminal telopeptide of type 1 collagen (CTx) were obtained before treatment and three and six months after treatment. P1NP and CTx levels remained unchanged in group 1, decreased in group 2 (p<0.001), and increased in group 3 women (p<0.001) throughout the treatment. OPG levels remained unchanged while RANKL decreased gradually in all groups (p<0.001). There was no correlation between OPG or RANKL and P1NP or CTx. Our data suggest that neither antiresorptive nor osteoanabolic therapy causes specific alterations of serum OPG/RANKL levels; therefore, these cytokines cannot substitute for the established markers of bone turnover in the monitoring of response to osteoporosis treatment.     

Gas phase characterization of the noncovalent quaternary structure of cholera toxin and the cholera toxin B subunit pentamer

Cholera toxin (CTx) is an AB5 cytotonic protein that has medical relevance in cholera and as a novel mucosal adjuvant. Here, we report an analysis of the noncovalent homopentameric complex of CTx B chain (CTx B5) using electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry and tandem mass spectrometry and the analysis of the noncovalent hexameric holotoxin usingelectrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry over a range of pH values that correlate with those encountered by this toxin after cellular uptake. We show that noncovalent interactions within the toxin assemblies were maintained under both acidic and neutral conditions in the gas phase. However, unlike the related Escherichia coli Shiga-like toxin B5 pentamer (SLTx B), the CTx B5 pentamer was stable at low pH, indicating that additional interactions must be present within the latter. Structural comparison of the CTx B monomer interface reveals an additional alpha-helix that is absent in the SLTx B monomer. In silico energy calculations support interactions between this helix and the adjacent monomer. These data provide insight into the apparent stabilization of CTx B relative to SLTx B.     

Extensive and continuous duplication facilitates rapid evolution and diversification of gene families

The origin of novel gene functions through gene duplication, mutation, and natural selection represents one of the mechanisms by which organisms diversify and one of the possible paths leading to adaptation. Nonetheless, the extent, role, and consequences of duplications in the origins of ecological adaptations, especially in the context of species interactions, remain unclear. To explore the evolution of a gene family that is likely linked to species associations, we investigated the evolutionary history of the A-superfamily of conotoxin genes of predatory marine cone snails (Conus species). Members of this gene family are expressed in the venoms of Conus species and are presumably involved in predator-prey associations because of their utility in prey capture. We recovered sequences of this gene family from genomic DNA of four closely related species of Conus and reconstructed the evolutionary history of these genes. Our study is the first to directly recover conotoxin genes from Conus genomes to investigate the evolution of conotoxin gene families. Our results revealed a phenomenon of rapid and continuous gene turnover that is coupled with heightened rates of evolution. This continuous duplication pattern has not been observed previously, and the rate of gene turnover is at least two times higher than estimates from other multigene families. Conotoxin genes are among the most rapidly evolving protein-coding genes in metazoans, a phenomenon that may be facilitated by extensive gene duplications and have driven changes in conotoxin functions through neofunctionalization. Together these mechanisms led to dramatically divergent arrangements of A-superfamily conotoxin genes among closely related species of Conus. Our findings suggest that extensive and continuous gene duplication facilitates rapid evolution and drastic divergence in venom compositions among species, processes that may be associated with evolutionary responses to predator-prey interactions.     

Rickettsial disease: classical and modern aspects

Rickettsial diseases have been reassessed in recent years since they represent an important field in today's medicine. New agents have been described: some are non-pathogenic agents and the others are associated with well-defined or peculiar clinical patterns. In addition, different species of rickettsiosis are found in relation to the geographic areas of the world. Some agents may be defined as variants of older diseases whereas most of the newly described forms of rickettsiosis represent distinct entities with unique epidemiologial and clinical features. Probably the main news regards the group of the spotted fevers. An additional new aspect is linked to the medicine of travellers and tourists. However, this aspect may not be significant for the rickettsial diseases in relation to other human illnesses, such as malaria. Therefore, an investigation into the geographical origin of patients has to enter our routine medical work.     

PrimerHunter: a primer design tool for PCR-based virus subtype identification

Rapid and reliable virus subtype identification is critical for accurate diagnosis of human infections, effective response to epidemic outbreaks and global-scale surveillance of highly pathogenic viral subtypes such as avian influenza H5N1. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has become the method of choice for virus subtype identification. However, designing subtype-specific PCR primer pairs is a very challenging task: on one hand, selected primer pairs must result in robust amplification in the presence of a significant degree of sequence heterogeneity within subtypes, on the other, they must discriminate between the subtype of interest and closely related subtypes. In this article, we present a new tool, called PrimerHunter, that can be used to select highly sensitive and specific primers for virus subtyping. Our tool takes as input sets of both target and nontarget sequences. Primers are selected such that they efficiently amplify any one of the target sequences, and none of the nontarget sequences. PrimerHunter ensures the desired amplification properties by using accurate estimates of melting temperature with mismatches, computed based on the nearest neighbor model via an efficient fractional programming algorithm. Validation experiments with three avian influenza HA subtypes confirm that primers selected by PrimerHunter have high sensitivity and specificity for target sequences.