Acetic Acid Production by Clostridium thermoaceticum in pH-Controlled Batch Fermentations at Acidic pH

Four strains of the homofermentative, obligately anaerobic thermophile Clostridium thermoaceticum were compared in pH-controlled batch fermentation for their tolerance to acetic acid, efficiency of converting glucose to acetic acid and cell mass, and growth rate. At pH 6 (and pH 7) and initial acetic acid concentrations of less than 10 g/liter, the four strains had mass doubling times of 5 to 7 h and conversion efficiencies to acetic acid and cell mass of about 90% (70 to 110%) and 10%, respectively. At pH 6 and initial acetic acid concentrations of greater than 10 g/liter, only two of the strains grew, the mass doubling time increased to 18 h, and the conversion efficiencies to acetic acid and cell mass remained unchanged. Both of these strains had been selected for their ability to grow in the presence of acetate at neutral pH. The highest acetic acid concentrations reached were about 15 and 20 g/liter at pH 6 and 7, respectively. C. thermoaceticum is apparently more sensitive to free acetic acid than to either acetate ion or pH. It was also shown that, at pH 6 and 7, the redox potential must be at least as low as −300 and −360 mV, respectively, for growth to occur.     

Acetic acid production from whey lactose by the co-culture ofStreptococcus lactis andClostridium formicoaceticum

Summary Acetic acid was produced from anaerobic fermentation of lactose by the co-culture ofStreptococcus lactis andClostridium formicoaceticum at 35° C and pHs between 7.0 and 7.6. Lactose was converted to lactic acid, and then to acetic acid in this mixed culture fermentation. The overall acetic acid yield from lactose was about 95% at pH 7.6 and 90% at pH 7.0. The fermentation rate was also higher at pH 7.6 than at pH 7.0. In batch fermentation of whey permeate containing about 5% lactose at pH 7.6, the concentration of acetic acid reached 20 g/l within 20 h. The production rate then became very slow due to end-product inhibition and high Na⁺ concentration. About 30 g/l acetate and 20 g/l lactate were obtained at a fermentation time of 80 h. However, when diluted whey permeate containing 2.5% lactose was used, all the whey lactose was converted to acetic acid within 30 h by this mixed culture.     

Measurement of the Effects of Acetic Acid and Extracellular pH on Intracellular pH of Nonfermenting, Individual Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cells by Fluorescence Microscopy

The effects of acetic acid and extracellular pH (pH_ex) on the intracellular pH (pH_i) of nonfermenting, individual Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells were studied by using a new experimental setup comprising a fluorescence microscope and a perfusion system. S. cerevisiae cells grown in brewer’s wort to the stationary phase were stained with fluorescein diacetate and transferred to a perfusion chamber. The extracellular concentration of undissociated acetic acid at various pH_ex values was controlled by perfusion with 2 g of total acetic acid per liter at pH_ex 3.5, 4.5, 5.6, and 6.5 through the chamber by using a high-precision pump. The pH_i of individual S. cerevisiae cells during perfusion was measured by fluorescence microscopy and ratio imaging. Potential artifacts, such as fading and efflux of fluorescein, could be neglected within the experimental time used. At pH_ex 6.5, the pH_i of individual S. cerevisiae cells decreased as the extracellular concentration of undissociated acetic acid increased from 0 to 0.035 g/liter, whereas at pH_ex 3.5, 4.5, and 5.6, the pH_i of individual S. cerevisiae cells decreased as the extracellular concentration of undissociated acetic acid increased from 0 to 0.10 g/liter. At concentrations of undissociated acetic acid of more than 0.10 g/liter, the pH_i remained constant. The decreases in pH_i were dependent on the pH_ex; i.e., the decreases in pH_i at pH_ex 5.6 and 6.5 were significantly smaller than the decreases in pH_i at pH_ex 3.5 and 4.5.     

Culture Conditions of l-Isoleucine Fermentation from Acetic Acid

Culture conditions were studied for l-isoleucine production from acetic acid. Acetate and ammonium concentration in culture liquid exerted a great influence on the fermentation, and optimum concentration was 2–5 g/liter and 2–3 g/liter respectively. To maintain these conditions throughout the culture, it was necessary to supply intermittently a small amount of feeding solution which consisted of ammonium acetate and acetic acid. Molecular ratio of the former to the latter was 0.175, and total concentration of acetic acid was 700 g/liter.

Carbon dioxide showed an inhibitory influence on l-isoleucine production and adequate ventilation was necessary for satisfactory result. Maximum amount of l-isoleucine was 33.5 g/liter after 77-hr cultivation at 28°C and at pH 7.7. Production yield of l-isoleucine was 10% by weight from acetic acid.     

High-yield growth of E. coli at different temperatures in a bench scale fermentor

E. coli wax grown exponentially at different temperatures in a bench scale fermentor. pH was maintained at 6.8 by ammonia which served also as the nitrogen source. Glucose was introduced semi-continuously at a predetermined rate which ensured a glucose concentration of 25–50 g/liter during growth. The culture was sparged with pure oxygen. Yield constants for glucose, nitrogen, phosphorus, and oxygen were determined at the different temperatures of propagation. When all growth conditions, except temperature, were kept constant, the maximal possible yield of exponentially grown cell mass was found to be directly proportional to the doubling time. Concentrations of up to 55 g dry cells/liter culture were achieved.     

Elucidation of Growth Inhibition and Acetic Acid Production by Clostridium thermoaceticum

The production of acetic acid by Clostridium thermoaceticum was studied by using batch fermentations. In a pH-controlled fermentation with sodium hydroxide (pH 6.9), this organism was able to produce 56 g of acetic acid per liter. On the other hand, when the pH was not controlled and was decreased during fermentation to 5.4, the maximum attainable acetic acid concentration was only 15.3 g/liter. To obtain a better understanding of the end product inhibition, various salts were tested to determine their effect on the growth rate of C. thermoaceticum. An inverse linear relationship between the growth rate and the final cell concentration to the sodium acetate concentration was found. By using different concentrations of externally added sodium salts, the relative growth inhibition caused by the anion was found to be in the order of acetate > chloride > sulfate. Various externally added cations of acetate were also examined with respect to their inhibitory effects on growth. The relative magnitude of inhibition on the growth rate was found to be ammonium > potassium > sodium. The combined results have shown that the undissociated acetic acid was much more inhibitory than the ionized acetate ion. Complete growth inhibition resulted when the undissociated acetic acid concentration was between 0.04 and 0.05 M and when the ionized acetate concentration was 0.8 M. Therefore, at low pH (below 6.0), undissociated acetic acid is responsible for growth inhibition, and at high pH (above 6.0), ionized acetate ion is responsible for growth inhibition.     

Growth rate dependence of solventogenesis and solvents produced byClostridium beijerinckii

Summary Acidogenesis and solventogenesis byClostridium beijerinckii NRRL B-593 has been studied in batch growth, and in sucrose-limited chemostat and recycling fermentor growth. Cells grown in batch culture without pH control primarily produced either butyric and acetic acids, or these acids plus butanol, ethanol and isopropanol in ratios depending on the medium's content of reducing agent, calcium and iron. Cells in chemostat-culture at a mass doubling time (t_d) of 5.8 h produced primarily butyric and acetic acids at pH 6.8 and these acids plus butanol, ethanol and isopropanol at pH 4.8. Cells grown in a recycling fermentor (in which the t_d continuously increases) at pH 6.8 entered solventogenesis at a t_d of 43 h, producing primarily propanol, ethanol and butanol, along with butyric acid, but with greatly decreased production of acetic acid. Although clostridial form morphology, succeeded by sporulation, usually accompanied solventogenesis, the association was not invariant so that solventogenesis and sporogenesis can occur separately in this species.     

耐铵型产琥珀酸放线杆菌的选育

以Actinobacillus succinogenes NJ113为出发菌株,经硫酸二乙酯(DES)诱变,在含8～20 g/L硫酸铵平板中筛选到一株耐铵型突变株YZ25,该菌株在含8 g/L硫酸铵培养基中厌氧发酵,琥珀酸产量达32.68 g/L,比出发菌提高了180.5%,对葡萄糖收率达65.4%,副产物乙酸、甲酸产量分别下降3.5%、28.7%,琥珀酸/乙酸比值由0.63提高到2.5。在7.5 L发酵罐中,用氨水调节pH分批实验,发酵34 h琥珀酸产量达27.13 g/L,较出发菌株提高了85.3%。     

Growth of Iron-Oxidizing Thiobacilli in the Presence of Chalcopyrite and Galena

Iron-oxidizing thiobacilli were adapted to grow on a chalcopyrite and a galena ore concentrate. When grown on the chalcopyrite concentrate, the bacteria exhibited a doubling time of 38.4 ± 2.9 h, with a final cellular protein concentration of 185 μg/ml and solubilization of 10.3 g of copper per liter. When grown on the galena ore concentrate, the generation time was 39.6 ± 2.7 h, with a final cellular protein concentration of 120 μg/ml. Galena was converted to lead salts soluble in 1 M ammonium acetate to a concentration of 20.2 g of lead per liter. X-ray diffraction and refractive-image analysis indicated that the smaller-sized particles were favored in this process. Galena was converted to anglesite, and soluble copper was liberated from chalcopyrite with the concurrent formation of jarosite.     

百日咳杆菌有效免疫原的发酵培养

为扩大生产,采用５００立升发酵罐培养无细胞百日咳菌苗,发现随着培养时间的延续,细胞浓度增高,培养液的ｐＨ值上升,ＰＴ、ＦＨＡ活性、血凝效价逐渐增加、Ｏ２溶压下降、ＣＯ２溶压上升。ｐＨ值达８２时,ＰＴ活性最高为３００ＥＵ／ｍｌ,较现用扁瓶培养方法高５倍。ｐＨ值继续上升时,ＰＴ活性开始下降。ＦＨＡ活性及血凝效价具有相似的变化。通过测定培养液ｐＨ值以确定收获时间,可获得富含ＰＴ、ＦＨＡ、且活性均保持较高水平的培养液     

重组大肠杆菌产普鲁兰酶的高密度发酵工艺研究

以表达普鲁兰酶的重组大肠杆菌作为出发菌株,在摇瓶培养的基础上,建立了大肠杆菌工程菌产普鲁兰酶的高密度发酵工艺。通过测定细胞密度、细胞干重、分离菌体可溶性成分与不溶性成分及SDS-PAGE电泳,分析重组大肠杆菌的生长和普鲁兰酶的表达情况。摇瓶试验使用合成培养基和LB培养基,重组大肠杆菌在合成培养基生长较慢,诱导5 h的普鲁兰酶表达量高于LB培养基,包涵体比例低于LB培养基。重组大肠杆菌的高密度发酵使用合成培养基,补料阶段采用指数流加的工艺,在设定细胞的比生长速率为0.12的前提下,限制补料中碳源的供应,以阻止乙酸的产生。当细胞密度OD600达到70.0开始诱导,最终细胞密度为每升53.3 g细胞干重,细胞内可溶性普鲁兰酶为每升1.35 g。     

Influence of medium buffering capacity on inhibition of Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth by acetic and lactic acids

Acetic acid (167 mM) and lactic acid (548 mM) completely inhibited growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae both in minimal medium and in media which contained supplements, such as yeast extract, corn steep powder, or a mixture of amino acids. However, the yeast grew when the pH of the medium containing acetic acid or lactic acid was adjusted to 4.5, even though the medium still contained the undissociated form of either acid at a concentration of 102 mM. The results indicated that the buffer pair formed when the pH was adjusted to 4.5 stabilized the pH of the medium by sequestering protons and by lessening the negative impact of the pH drop on yeast growth, and it also decreased the difference between the extracellular and intracellular pH values (Delta(pH)), the driving force for the intracellular accumulation of acid. Increasing the undissociated acetic acid concentration at pH 4.5 to 163 mM by raising the concentration of the total acid to 267 mM did not increase inhibition. It is suggested that this may be the direct result of decreased acidification of the cytosol because of the intracellular buffering by the buffer pair formed from the acid already accumulated. At a concentration of 102 mM undissociated acetic acid, the yeast grew to higher cell density at pH 3.0 than at pH 4.5, suggesting that it is the total concentration of acetic acid (104 mM at pH 3.0 and 167 mM at pH 4.5) that determines the extent of growth inhibition, not the concentration of undissociated acid alone.     

Microbial Metabolism of a Parathion-Xylene Pesticide Formulation

A mixed bacterial culture was adapted to growth on a mixed carbon substrate consisting of the pesticide parathion and its xylene-based formulation. The environmental growth parameters of temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen concentration were optimized to obtain complete metabolism of parathion from this mixed carbon substrate. This adapted culture grew rapidly (mu = 0.7 per h) on the pesticide formulation at high parathion suspensions (3,000 mg/liter). Carbon utilization from this mixed substrate was strongly dependent on pH. At slightly acidic pH, xylene was preferentially metabolized, whereas at slightly alkaline pH, parathion was preferentially metabolized. Diethylthiophosphoric acid, a metabolite from parathion, and toluic acid, a metabolite from xylene, also influenced the selection of the primary carbon source.     

可溶性TRAIL蛋白的高密度培养及补料策略研究

采用分批补料的方法高密度培养重组大肠杆菌C600/PbvTRAIL制备人可溶性TRAIL蛋白,优化发酵工艺,探索简单高效的分离纯化方法并测定蛋白生物活性。通过比较几种不同的补料策略：间歇流加、Dostat、pHstat,摸索了一种流加策略,即DOstatpHstat组合流加,有效的避免了发酵过程中,尤其是诱导表达阶段乙酸积累的增加,使TRAIL蛋白在高密度培养条件下,得到高效表达。菌体密度最终达到300g/L（WCW）以上,可溶性TRAIL蛋白占菌体总蛋白的4.2%,含量为1.1g/L。在整个发酵过程中,乙酸浓度接近于0,且未使用任何特殊手段,如纯氧、加压等,简化了发酵工艺,降低了发酵成本,为TRAIL的工业化生产创造了条件。     

Effect of pH and lactic or acetic acid on ethanol productivity by Saccharomyces cerevisiae in corn mash

The effects of lactic and acetic acids on ethanol production by Saccharomyces cerevisiae in corn mash, as influenced by pH and dissolved solids concentration, were examined. The lactic and acetic acid concentrations utilized were 0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0% w/v, and 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8 and 1.6% w/v, respectively. Corn mashes (20, 25 and 30% dry solids) were adjusted to the following pH levels after lactic or acetic acid addition: 4.0, 4.5, 5.0 or 5.5 prior to yeast inoculation. Lactic acid did not completely inhibit ethanol production by the yeast. However, lactic acid at 4% w/v decreased (P<0.05) final ethanol concentration in all mashes at all pH levels. In 30% solids mash set at pH ≤5, lactic acid at 3% w/v reduced (P<0.05) ethanol production. In contrast, inhibition by acetic acid increased as the concentration of solids in the mash increased and the pH of the medium declined. Ethanol production was completely inhibited in all mashes set at pH 4 in the presence of acetic acid at concentrations ≥0.8% w/v. In 30% solids mash set at pH 4, final ethanol levels decreased (P<0.01) with only 0.1% w/v acetic acid. These results suggest that the inhibitory effects of lactic acid and acetic acid on ethanol production in corn mash fermentation when set at a pH of 5.0–5.5 are not as great as that reported thus far using laboratory media.     

Influence of Medium Buffering Capacity on Inhibition of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Growth by Acetic and Lactic Acids

Acetic acid (167 mM) and lactic acid (548 mM) completely inhibited growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae both in minimal medium and in media which contained supplements, such as yeast extract, corn steep powder, or a mixture of amino acids. However, the yeast grew when the pH of the medium containing acetic acid or lactic acid was adjusted to 4.5, even though the medium still contained the undissociated form of either acid at a concentration of 102 mM. The results indicated that the buffer pair formed when the pH was adjusted to 4.5 stabilized the pH of the medium by sequestering protons and by lessening the negative impact of the pH drop on yeast growth, and it also decreased the difference between the extracellular and intracellular pH values (ΔpH), the driving force for the intracellular accumulation of acid. Increasing the undissociated acetic acid concentration at pH 4.5 to 163 mM by raising the concentration of the total acid to 267 mM did not increase inhibition. It is suggested that this may be the direct result of decreased acidification of the cytosol because of the intracellular buffering by the buffer pair formed from the acid already accumulated. At a concentration of 102 mM undissociated acetic acid, the yeast grew to higher cell density at pH 3.0 than at pH 4.5, suggesting that it is the total concentration of acetic acid (104 mM at pH 3.0 and 167 mM at pH 4.5) that determines the extent of growth inhibition, not the concentration of undissociated acid alone.     

Metabolic flux modeling of detoxification of acetic acid by Ralstonia eutropha at slightly alkaline pH levels

Ralstonia eutropha grows on and produces polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) from fermentation acids. Acetic acid, one major organic acid from acidogenesis of organic wastes, has an inhibitory effect on the bacterium at slightly alkaline pH (6 g HAc/L at pH 8). The tolerance of R. eutropha to acetate, however, was increased significantly up to 15 g/L at the slightly alkaline pH level with high cell mass concentration. A metabolic cell model with five fluxes is proposed to depict the detoxification mechanism including mass transfer and acetyl-CoA formation of acetic acid and the formation of three final metabolic products, polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), active biomass, and CO(2). The fluxes were measured under different conditions such as cell mass concentration, acetic acid concentration, and medium composition. The experimental results indicate that the acetate detoxification by high cell mass concentration is attributed to the increased fluxes at high extracellular acetate concentrations. The fluxes could be doubled to reduce and hence detoxify the accumulated intracellular acetate anions.     

Influence of specific growth rate on biomass yield, productivity, and compostion of Candida utilis in batch and continuous culture.

Candida utilis was grown in batch and continuous culture on prickly pear juice as sole carbon and energy source. In batch culture the maximum specific growth rate (mum) and the substrate yield coefficient (Yps) varied according to sugar concentration. When the fermentation was carried out with 1% sugar, mum and Ys were 0.47/h and 42.6%, respectively. The best yields occurred in a chemostat at the pH range of 3.5 to 4.5 and temperature of 30 C. A beneficial effect on Ys was observed when the dilution rate (D) was increased. At a D of 0.55/h, the productivity was 2.38 g/liter per h. The maintenance coefficient attained a value of 0.09 g of sugar/g of biomass per h. Increases of D produced higher protein contents of the biomass. The information obtained indicates that protein production with Candida utilis, using prickly pear juice, should be carried out a high dilution rates where the Ys and protein content of the cell mass are also higher.     

Effect of temperature and pH onCandida blankii in chemostat culture

The growth characteristics ofCandida blankii as a function of temperature and pH in a simulated bagasse hemicellulose hydrolysate were determined in chemostat culture. The highest maximum specific growth rate of 0.44h^–1 was reached at 38°C and at pH 5.5, with a sharp decrease in growth rate on either side of this temperature. Growth occurred at 46°C but not at 48°C. The protein and cell yields varied little below 40°C and the respective values were 0.22 and 0.5 g/g at 38°C. At the lower pH values, a severe linear decrease in cell and protein yields occurred, whereas a small increase in these yields at decreasing pH values was found when acetic acid was omitted from the medium. In the presence of acetic acid, a very sharp decrease in the growth rate at pH values below pH 4.5 was noted, despite the very low residual acetic acid concentrations, of less than 50 mg/l, in the culture.     

Influence of specific growth rate on biomass yield, productivity, and compostion of Candida utilis in batch and continuous culture.

Candida utilis was grown in batch and continuous culture on prickly pear juice as sole carbon and energy source. In batch culture the maximum specific growth rate (mum) and the substrate yield coefficient (Yps) varied according to sugar concentration. When the fermentation was carried out with 1% sugar, mum and Ys were 0.47/h and 42.6%, respectively. The best yields occurred in a chemostat at the pH range of 3.5 to 4.5 and temperature of 30 C. A beneficial effect on Ys was observed when the dilution rate (D) was increased. At a D of 0.55/h, the productivity was 2.38 g/liter per h. The maintenance coefficient attained a value of 0.09 g of sugar/g of biomass per h. Increases of D produced higher protein contents of the biomass. The information obtained indicates that protein production with Candida utilis, using prickly pear juice, should be carried out a high dilution rates where the Ys and protein content of the cell mass are also higher.