Involvement of mitophagy in oncogenic K-Ras-induced transformation

Although mitochondrial impairment has often been implicated in carcinogenesis, the mechanisms of its development in cancer remain unknown. We report here that autophagy triggered by oncogenic K-Ras mediates functional loss of mitochondria during cell transformation to overcome an energy deficit resulting from glucose deficiency. When Rat2 cells were infected with a retrovirus harboring constitutively active K-Ras^V12, mitochondrial respiration significantly declined in parallel with the acquisition of transformation characteristics. Decreased respiration was not related to mitochondrial biogenesis but was inversely associated with the increased formation of acidic vesicles enclosing mitochondria, during which autophagy-related proteins such as Beclin 1, Atg5, LC3-II and vacuolar ATPases were induced. Interestingly, blocking autophagy with conventional inhibitors (bafilomycin A, 3-methyladenin) and siRNA-mediated knockdown of autophagy-related genes recovered respiratory protein expression and respiratory activity; JNK was involved in these phenomena as an upstream regulator. The cells transformed by K-Ras^V12 maintained cellular ATP level mainly through glycolytic ATP production without induction of GLUT1, the low K_m glucose transporter. Finally, K-Ras^V12-triggered LC3-II formation was modulated by extracellular glucose levels, and LC3-II formation increased only in hepatocellular carcinoma tissues exhibiting low glucose uptake and increased K-Ras expression. Taken together, our observations suggest that mitochondrial functional loss may be mediated by oncogenic K-Ras-induced mitophagy during early tumorigenesis even in the absence of hypoxia, and that this mitophagic process may be an important strategy to overcome the cellular energy deficit triggered by insufficient glucose.     

Involvement of autophagy in oncogenic K-Ras-induced malignant cell transformation

Autophagy has recently been implicated in both the prevention and progression of cancer. However, the molecular basis for the relationship between autophagy induction and the initial acquisition of malignancy is currently unknown. Here, we provide the first evidence that autophagy is essential for oncogenic K-Ras (K-Ras(V12))-induced malignant cell transformation. Retroviral expression of K-Ras(V12) induced autophagic vacuole formation and malignant transformation in human breast epithelial cells. Interestingly, pharmacological inhibition of autophagy completely blocked K-Ras(V12)-induced, anchorage-independent cell growth on soft agar. Both mRNA and protein levels of ATG5 and ATG7 (autophagy-specific genes 5 and 7, respectively) were increased in cells overexpressing K-Ras(V12). Targeted suppression of ATG5 or ATG7 expression by short hairpin (sh) RNA inhibited cell growth on soft agar and tumor formation in nude mice. Moreover, inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) with antioxidants clearly attenuated K-Ras(V12)-induced ATG5 and ATG7 induction, autophagy, and malignant cell transformation. MAPK pathway components were activated in cells overexpressing K-Ras(V12), and inhibition of JNK blunted induction of ATG5 and ATG7 and subsequent autophagy. In addition, pretreatment with antioxidants completely inhibited K-Ras(V12)-induced JNK activation. Our results provide novel evidence that autophagy is critically involved in malignant transformation by oncogenic K-Ras and show that reactive oxygen species-mediated JNK activation plays a causal role in autophagy induction through up-regulation of ATG5 and ATG7.     

Regulation of cellular transformation by oncogenic and normal Abl kinases

Cellular transformation, the conversion of normal cells into tumorigenic cells in vitro, is characterized by immortalization, anchorage- and serum-independent growth and tumour formation in the nude mouse. Among these, anchorage-independent growth is one of the defining characteristics of transformed cells and tumour cells. Without attachment to the extracellular substrate, most normal cells cannot grow or survive, but tumour cells can proliferate. Many oncogenes and tumour suppressors are involved in regulating this process, among which is Abl tyrosine kinases. Previous work showed that v-Abl, an oncogenic variant of c-Abl kinase, induces anchorage-independent growth in the context of p53 deficiency, and a recent study by our group showed that loss of c-Abl kinase also facilitates anchorage-independent growth. The cellular context, such as a deficiency in both p53 and RB, is critical to induce anchorage independence by loss of c-Abl kinase. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of cellular transformation by oncogenic and normal Abl kinases.     

Caspase-8 deficiency facilitates cellular transformation in vitro

Caspase-8 is frequently deficient in several kinds of human tumors, suggesting that certain effects of this enzyme restrict tumor development. To examine the nature of the cellular function whose regulation by caspase-8 contributes to its antitumor effect, we assessed the impact of caspase-8 deficiency on cell transformation in vitro. Caspase-8-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts immortalized with the SV40 T antigen did not survive when cultured in soft agar, and were nontumorogenic in nude mice. However, the rate of transformation of these cells during their continuous growth in culture, as reflected in the observed emergence of cells that do grow in soft agar and are able to form tumors in nude mice, was far higher than that of cells expressing caspase-8. These findings indicate that caspase-8 deficiency can contribute to cancer development in a way that does not depend on the enzyme's participation in killing of the tumor cells by host immune cytotoxic mechanisms, or on its involvement in the cell-death process triggered upon detachment of the cells from their substrate, but rather concerns cell-autonomous mechanisms that affect the rate of cell transformation.     

The influence of cellular proliferative history on the susceptibility to oncogenic transformation

C3H mouse 10T½ clone 8 cells were serially transferred from passage 11 to 15 with 5 × 10⁴ cells seeded per 60-mm dish at each passage. One group of cells was passaged as soon as confluence was reached. Two other groups were kept for 3 or 6 days in confluence at each passage before subculture. Cloning efficiency was found to increase progressively with passage of all three groups. At the 15th passage, cells from all three groups were harvested just prior to confluence, irradiated with ultraviolet light, and assayed for clonogenic survival and malignant transformation. Survival response was the same for all three groups, but cells which were kept constantly proliferating in previous passages were found to be much more susceptible to transformation. These results suggest that the susceptibility of these cells to transformation is influenced by their proliferative history; in particular, intermittent growth quiescence in previous passages decreased this susceptibility.     

Effect of cellular determination on oncogenic transformation by chemicals and oncogenes.

Three developmentally determined myogenic cell lines derived from C3H 10T1/2 C18 (10T1/2) mouse embryo cells treated with 5-azacytidine were compared with the parental 10T1/2 line for their susceptibility to oncogenic transformation by 3-methylcholanthrene or the activated human c-Ha-ras oncogene. Neither the 10T1/2 cells nor the myogenic derivatives grew in soft agar or formed tumors in nude mice. In contrast to 10T1/2 cells, the three myogenic derivatives were not susceptible to transformation by 3-methylcholanthrene, so that cellular determination altered the response of 10T1/2 cells to chemical carcinogen. On the other hand, all cell types were transformed to a tumorigenic phenotype following transfection with the activated c-Ha-ras gene. The transfected myogenic cells expressed both the c-Ha-ras gene and the muscle determination gene MyoD1. In contrast to other reports, the presence of as many as six copies of the c-Ha-ras gene per genome did not prevent the formation of striated muscle cells which expressed immunologically detectable muscle-specific myosin. The expression of the c-Ha-ras gene does not therefore necessarily preclude the expression of the determination gene for myogenesis or prevent end-stage myogenic differentiation.     

Interplay between cellular methyl metabolism and adaptive efflux during oncogenic transformation from chronic arsenic exposure in human cells

After protracted low level arsenic exposure, the normal human prostate epithelial cell line RWPE-1 acquires a malignant phenotype with DNA hypomethylation, indicative of disrupted methyl metabolism, and shows arsenic adaptation involving glutathione overproduction and enhanced arsenic efflux. Thus, the interplay between methyl and glutathione metabolism during this progressive arsenic adaptation was studied. Arsenic-treated cells showed a time-dependent increase in LC50 and a marked increase in homocysteine (Hcy) levels. A marked suppression of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) levels occurred with decreased methionine adenosyltransferase 2A (converts methionine to SAM) expression and increased negative regulator methionine adenosyltransferase B, suggesting reduced conversion of Hcy to SAM. Consistent with Hcy overproduction, activity and expression of S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase (converts S-adenosylhomocysteine to Hcy) were both increased. Expression of cystathionine beta-synthase, a key gene in the transsulfuration pathway, and various glutathione production genes were increased, resulting in a 5-fold increase in glutathione. Arsenic efflux increased along with expression of ATP-binding cassette protein C1, which effluxes arsenic as a glutathione conjugate. Evidence of genomic DNA hypomethylation was observed during early arsenic exposure, indicating that the disruption in methyl metabolism had a potential impact related to oncogenesis. Thus, cellular arsenic adaptation is a dynamic, progressive process that involves decreased SAM recycling and concurrent accumulation of Hcy, which is channeled via transsulfuration to increase glutathione and enhance arsenic efflux but may also impact the carcinogenic process.     

deltaNp73 facilitates cell immortalization and cooperates with oncogenic Ras in cellular transformation in vivo

TP73, despite significant homology to TP53, is not a classic tumor suppressor gene, since it exhibits upregulation of nonmutated products in human tumors and lacks a tumor phenotype in p73-deficient mice. We recently reported that an N-terminally truncated isoform, DeltaNp73, is upregulated in breast and gynecological cancers. We further showed that DeltaNp73 is a potent transdominant inhibitor of wild-type p53 and TAp73 in cultured human tumor cells by efficiently counteracting their target gene transactivations, apoptosis, and growth suppression functions (A. I. Zaika et al., J. Exp. Med. 6:765-780, 2002). Although these data strongly suggest oncogenic properties of DeltaNp73, this can only be directly shown in primary cells. We report here that DeltaNp73 confers resistance to spontaneous replicative senescence of primary mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) and immortalizes MEFs at a 1,000-fold-higher frequency than occurs spontaneously. DeltaNp73 cooperates with cMyc and E1A in promoting primary cell proliferation and colony formation and compromises p53-dependent MEF apoptosis. Importantly, DeltaNp73 rescues Ras-induced senescence. Moreover, DeltaNp73 cooperates with oncogenic Ras in transforming primary fibroblasts in vitro and in inducing MEF-derived fibrosarcomas in vivo in nude mice. Wild-type p53 is likely a major target of DeltaNp73 inhibition in primary fibroblasts since deletion of p53 or its requisite upstream activator ARF abrogates the growth-promoting effect of DeltaNp73. Taken together, DeltaNp73 behaves as an oncogene that targets p53 that might explain why DeltaNp73 upregulation may be selected for during tumorigenesis of human cancers.     

Altered glucose homeostasis in response to aluminium phosphide induced cellular oxygen deficit in rat

The present study was designed to analyze the effect of acute aluminium phosphide (ALP) (10 mg/kg body wt.) exposure on the glucose homeostasis in rat liver and brain. ALP has been implicated in the inhibition of cytochrome oxidase causing reduced oxygen uptake and decreased ATP synthesis eventually resulting in cellular energy crisis. A significant decrease in plasma glucose levels in the ALP treated rats has been observed. Therefore, decreased ATP levels coupled with hypoglycemia may further intensify the cellular energy deficits. In order to meet the sudden increase in the local energy demand, the brain tissue utilizes its stored energy in the form of glycogen breakdown as observed by a decrease in the glycogen levels in both liver and brain which was accompanied by a marked increase in the activity of glycogen phosphorylase in both the tissues. The glycolytic rate was found to be enhanced in brain tissue as evident by increased activities of hexokinase and phosphofructokinase enzymes, but decreased in liver of ALP treated rats. Lactate levels were increased in plasma and brain, but decreased in liver of ALP treated rats. Pyruvate levels increased in the plasma and liver, but no change was observed in the brain tissue. ALP did not cause any change in the gluconeogenic enzymes like glucose-6-phosphatase and fructose-1,6-bisphophatase in brain, but a significant increase was observed in the liver. Results of the study showed that ALP induced cellular energy deficit leads to compromised energy status of liver and brain coupled with substantial alterations in glucose homeostasis. However, the activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase decreased significantly in both the tissues.     

Inhibitory effect of interferon on the genetic and oncogenic transformation by viral and cellular genes.

The rodent established cell lines LTk- and NIH 3T3 have been used as recipients in gene transfer experiments to study the effect of interferon treatment on the genetic and oncogenic transformation by several genes of viral and cellular origin. Our results show that interferon severely inhibits, to a similar extent, the stable transformation of Ltk- and NIH 3T3 cells by the chicken thymidine kinase (tk) gene, Ecogpt gene, simian virus 40, v-Ha-ras, and human c-Ha-ras and c-Ki-ras oncogenes. These results are consistent with an inhibition by interferon at the level of stabilization or integration, or both, of exogenous DNA sequences in the recipient cells, with an apparent effect on gene expression.     

Mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy in Parkinson's disease: disordered cellular power plant becomes a big deal in a major movement disorder

Parkinson's disease (PD), the most common movement disorder, is characterized by age-dependent degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of the mid-brain. Non-motor symptoms of PD, however, precede the motor features caused by dysfunction of the dopaminergic system, suggesting that PD is a systemic disorder. Mitochondrial dysfunction has long been observed in PD patients and animal models, but the mechanistic link between mitochondrial dysfunction and PD pathogenesis is not well understood. Recent studies have revealed that genes associated with autosomal recessive forms of PD such as PINK1 and Parkin are directly involved in regulating mitochondrial morphology and maintenance, abnormality of which is also observed in the more common, sporadic forms of PD, although the autosomal recessive PDs lack Lewy-body pathology that is characteristic of sporadic PD. These latest findings suggest that at least some forms of PD can be characterized as a mitochondrial disorder. Whether mitochondrial dysfunction represents a unifying pathogenic mechanism of all PD cases remains a major unresolved question.     

Parkin-mediated mitophagy and autophagy flux disruption in cellular models of MERRF syndrome

Mitochondrial diseases are considered rare genetic disorders characterized by defects in oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). They can be provoked by mutations in nuclear DNA (nDNA) or mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). MERRF (Myoclonic Epilepsy with Ragged-Red Fibers) syndrome is one of the most frequent mitochondrial diseases, principally caused by the m.8344A>G mutation in mtDNA, which affects the translation of all mtDNA-encoded proteins and therefore impairs mitochondrial function.In the present work, we evaluated autophagy and mitophagy flux in transmitochondrial cybrids and fibroblasts derived from a MERRF patient, reporting that Parkin-mediated mitophagy is increased in MERRF cell cultures. Our results suggest that supplementation with coenzyme Q₁₀ (CoQ), a component of the electron transport chain (ETC) and lipid antioxidant, prevents Parkin translocation to the mitochondria. In addition, CoQ acts as an enhancer of autophagy and mitophagy flux, which partially improves cell pathophysiology. The significance of Parkin-mediated mitophagy in cell survival was evaluated by silencing the expression of Parkin in MERRF cybrids. Our results show that mitophagy acts as a cell survival mechanism in mutant cells.To confirm these results in one of the main affected cell types in MERRF syndrome, mutant induced neurons (iNs) were generated by direct reprogramming of patients-derived skin fibroblasts. The treatment of MERRF iNs with Guttaquinon CoQ₁₀ (GuttaQ), a water-soluble derivative of CoQ, revealed a significant improvement in cell bioenergetics. These results indicate that iNs, along with fibroblasts and cybrids, can be utilized as reliable cellular models to shed light on disease pathomechanisms as well as for drug screening.     

Dissociation of cellular transformation from platelet-derived growth factor independence

ST2-3T3, a spontaneously transformed BALB/c-3T3 cell line which does not require platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) for growth, was fused to THO2, a PDGF-responsive non-transformed BALB/c-3T3 cell line, in order to learn whether transformation is expressed coordinately with PDGF independence. Hybrid cells were selected and grown in medium containing both HAT (hypoxanthine-aminopterin-thymidine) and ouabain; unfused cells of each parental type were killed in HAT-ouabain medium. Five independently isolated ST2-3T3xTHO2 hybrid cell lines were established and characterized for both transformation and PDGF responsiveness. All five were transformed, having a disorganized growth pattern and achieving a final cell density similar to that of ST2-3T3 cells. Two of these lines did not respond to a brief treatment with PDGF: the mitogen neither induced the synthesis of a PDGF-modulated lysosomal protein (termed MEP), nor stimulated the cells to enter the S phase; one line responded to PDGF by synthesizing both MEP and DNA, whereas two others synthesized MEP but not DNA. In contrast, four independently isolated cell lines obtained by fusing PDGF-responsive non-transformed BALB/c-3TC cells to the THO2 line were all PDGF-responsive for both MEP and DNA synthesis and were not transformed. It appears that PDGF independence is not required for the transformation of BALB/c-3T3 cells.     

Involvement of ribonucleotide reductase in cellular differentiation

L₆ and L₈ rat myoblast cell lines have been selected for resistance to hydroxyurea, an antineoplastic agent whose intracellular target is the rate-limiting enzyme activity of DNA synthesis, ribonucleotide reductase. In contrast to the differentiation-competent parental lines from which they were selected, the drug-resistant lines exhibit a grossly altered or absent myogenic capacity. Independent selections have revealed a strong correlation between changes in ribonucleotide reductase, as determined by velocity levels and product pool analyses, and altered myogenic potential. These results provide the first indication that alterations in this key enzyme activity and its accompanying deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate pools can affect cellular differentiation.