SL1 trans-splicing specified by AU-rich synthetic RNA inserted at the 5' end of Caenorhabditis elegans pre-mRNA.

In Caenorhabditis elegans, pre-mRNAs of many genes are trans-spliced to one of two spliced leaders, SL1 or SL2. Some of those that receive exclusively SL1 have been characterized as having at their 5' ends outrons, AU-rich sequences similar to introns followed by conventional 3' splice sites. Comparison of outrons from many different SL1-specific C. elegans genes has not revealed the presence of any consensus sequence that might encode SL1-specificity. In order to determine what parameters influence the splicing of SL1, we performed in vivo experiments with synthetic splice sites. Synthetic AU-rich RNA, 51 nt or longer, placed upstream of a consensus 3' splice site resulted in efficient trans-splicing. With all sequences tested, this trans-splicing was specifically to SL1. Thus, no information beyond the presence of AU-rich RNA at least as long as the minimum-length C. elegans intron, followed by a 3' splice site, is required to specify trans-splicing or for strict SL1 specificity.     

The flatworm spliced leader 3'-terminal AUG as a translation initiator methionine

Spliced leader (SL) RNA trans-splicing contributes the 5' termini to mRNAs in a variety of eukaryotes. In contrast with some transsplicing metazoan groups (e.g. nematodes), flatworm spliced leaders are variable in both sequence and length in different flatworm taxa. However, an absolutely conserved and unique feature of all flatworm spliced leaders is the presence of a 3'-terminal AUG. We previously suggested that the Schistosoma mansoni spliced leader AUG might contribute a required translation initiator methionine to recipient mRNAs. Here we identified and examined trans-spliced cDNAs from a large set of newly available schistosome cDNAs. 28% of the trans-spliced cDNAs have the SL AUG in-frame with the major open reading frame of the mRNA. We identified over 40 cDNAs (40% of the SL AUG in-frame clones) that require the SL AUG as an initiator methionine to synthesize phylogenetically conserved N-terminal residues characteristic of orthologous proteins. RNA transfection experiments using several schistosome stages demonstrated that the flatworm SL AUG can serve as a translation initiator methionine in vivo. We also present in vivo translation studies of the schistosome initiator methionine context and the effect of the spliced leader AUG added upstream and out-of-frame with the main open reading of recipient mRNAs. Overall, our data have provided evidence that another function of flatworm spliced leader trans-splicing is to provide some recipient mRNAs with an initiator methionine for translation initiation.     

Spliced leader trans-splicing in the nematode Trichinella spiralis uses highly polymorphic, noncanonical spliced leaders

The trans-splicing of short spliced leader (SL) RNAs onto the 5' ends of mRNAs occurs in a diverse range of taxa. In nematodes, all species so far characterized utilize a characteristic, conserved spliced leader, SL1, as well as variants that are employed in the resolution of operons. Here we report the identification of spliced leader trans-splicing in the basal nematode Trichinella spiralis, and show that this nematode does not possess a canonical SL1, but rather has at least 15 distinct spliced leaders, encoded by at least 19 SL RNA genes. The individual spliced leaders vary in both size and primary sequence, showing a much higher degree of diversity compared to other known trans-spliced leaders. In a survey of T. spiralis mRNAs, individual mRNAs were found to be trans-spliced to a number of different spliced leader sequences. These data provide the first indication that the last common ancestor of the phylum Nematoda utilized spliced leader trans-splicing and that the canonical spliced leader, SL1, found in Caenorhabditis elegans, evolved after the divergence of the major nematode clades. This discovery sheds important light on the nature and evolution of mRNA processing in the Nematoda.     

Most mRNAs in the nematode Ascaris lumbricoides are trans-spliced: a role for spliced leader addition in translational efficiency.

Some pre-mRNAs in nematodes are processed by trans-splicing. In this reaction, a 22-nt 5' terminal exon (the spliced leader, SL) and its associated 2,2,7-trimethylguanosine cap are acquired from a specialized Sm snRNP, the SL RNP. Although it has been evident for many years that not all nematode mRNAs contain the SL sequence, the prevalence of trans-spliced mRNAs has, with the exception of Caenorhabditis elegans, not been determined. To address this question in an organism amenable to biochemical analysis, we have prepared a message-dependent protein synthesis system from developing embryos of the parasitic nematode, Ascaris lumbricoides. Using this system, we have used both hybrid-arrest and hybrid-selection approaches to show that the vast majority (80-90%) of A. lumbricoides mRNAs contain the SL sequence and therefore are processed by trans-splicing. Furthermore, to examine the effect of SL addition on translation, we have measured levels of protein synthesis in extracts programmed with a variety of synthetic mRNAs. We find that the SL sequence itself and its associated hypermethylated cap functionally collaborate to enhance translational efficiency, presumably at the level of initiation of protein synthesis. These results indicate that trans-splicing plays a larger role in nematode gene expression than previously suspected.     

Conversion of a trans-spliced C. elegans gene into a conventional gene by introduction of a splice donor site.

In Caenorhabditis elegans, pre-mRNAs that are trans-spliced are distinguished by the presence of an 'outron', intron-like RNA at the 5' end followed by a splice acceptor. We report that trans-splicing of the rol-6 gene can be completely suppressed simply by introducing a donor site into its 173 nt outron, at a site 50 nt upstream of the trans-splice site, thereby converting rol-6 into a conventional gene with a spliced intron near its 5' end. When the consensus donor site was inserted at sites further upstream it was less effective in replacing transplicing with cis-splicing. Surprisingly, the length of the intron was not the important variable, since lengthening of the 50 nt intron to 250 nt did not restore trans-splicing. Apparently the context into which the splice site was introduced determined the efficiency of its use. These results support the conclusion that the sole signal for trans-splicing is the presence of an outron. Clearly, cis- and trans-splice acceptor sites are interchangeable, allowing the possibility of competition between the two types of splicing.     

Mapping of branch sites in trans-spliced pre-mRNAs of Trypanosoma brucei.

The process of trans splicing is essential to the maturation of all mRNAs in the Trypanosomatidae, a family of protozoan parasites, and to specific mRNAs in several species of nematode. In Trypanosoma brucei, a 39-nucleotide (nt) leader sequence originating from a small, 139-nt donor RNA (the spliced leader [SL] RNA) is spliced to the 5' end of mRNAs. An intermediate in this trans-splicing process is a Y structure which contains the 3' 100 nt of the SL RNA covalently linked to the pre-mRNA via a 2'-5' phosphodiester bond at the branch point residue. We mapped the branch points in T. brucei alpha- and beta-tubulin pre-mRNAs. The primary branch acceptors for the alpha- and beta-tubulins are 44 and 56 nt upstream of the 3' splice sites, respectively, and are A residues. Minor branch acceptors were detected 42 and 49 nt upstream of the alpha-tubulin splice site and 58 nt upstream of the splice site in beta-tubulin. The regions surrounding these branch points lack homology to the consensus sequences determined for mammalian cells and yeasts; there is also no conservation among the sequences themselves. Thus, the identified sequences suggest that the mechanism of branch point recognition in T. brucei differs from the mechanism of recognition by U2 RNA that has been proposed for other eucaryotes.     

A new twist in trypanosome RNA metabolism: cis-splicing of pre-mRNA

It has been known for almost a decade and a half that in trypanosomes all mRNAs are trans-spliced by addition to the 5' end of the spliced leader (SL) sequence. During the same time period the conviction developed that classical cis-splicing introns are not present in the trypanosome genome and that the trypanosome gene arrangement is highly compact with small intergenic regions separating one gene from the next. We have now discovered that these tenets are no longer true. Poly(A) polymerase (PAP) genes in Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi are split by intervening sequences of 653 and 302 nt, respectively. The intervening sequences occur at identical positions in both organisms and obey the GT/AG rule of cis-splicing introns. PAP mRNAs are trans-spliced at the very 5' end as well as internally at the 3' splice site of the intervening sequence. Interestingly, 11 nucleotide positions past the actual 5' splice site are conserved between the T. bruceiand T. cruzi introns. Point mutations in these conserved positions, as well as in the AG dinucleotide of the 3' splice site, abolish intron removal in vivo. Our results, together with the recent discovery of cis-splicing introns in Euglena gracilis, suggest that both trans- and cis-splicing are ancient acquisitions of the eukaryotic cell.     

Intramolecular base pairing between the nematode spliced leader and its 5'' splice site is not essential for trans-splicing in vitro.

The spliced leader RNAs of both trypanosomes and nematodes can form similar secondary structures where the trans-splice donor site is involved in intramolecular base pairing with the spliced leader sequence. It has been proposed that this base pairing could serve to activate autonomously the SL RNA splice donor site. Here, we have examined exon requirements for trans-splicing in a nematode cell free system. Complete disruption of secondary structure interactions at and around the trans-splice donor site did not affect the ability of the SL RNA to function in trans-splicing. In addition, the highly conserved 22 nt sequence could be productively replaced by artificial exons ranging in size from 2 to 246 nucleotides. These results reinforce the view that the 'intron' portion of the SL RNA functions as an independent Sm snRNP whose role is to deliver exon sequences to the trans-spliceosome.