Seasonally, Labor Scheduling, and Agricultural Intensification in the Nigerian Savanna

Human labor is the primary factor of production in indigenous agricultural systems, yet the organization and scheduling of labor, and effect of agricultural intensification on these processes, remain poorly understood. While most theoretical and empirical studies have emphasized overall labor input and efficiency, this study of the Kofyar of Nigeria analyzes the scheduling and mobilization of labor in ecological context. Detailed labor diaries for a sample of households over an entire agricultural cycle reveal intricate schedules that balance the labor demands of a variable crop complex with a set of complementary mechanisms for mobilizing labor. With rising population density and market impetus, the Kofyar have increased gross labor inputs, adjusted crop mixes to reduce weekly fluctuations in labor, and extended the agricultural season. Labor demands are met by three social mechanisms of labor mobilization, which offer varying sizes of labor pool, degree of flexibility, and type of compensation.     

“Predatory Sedentism”: Intimidation and Intensification in the Nigerian Savanna

While many studies have explored how agriculture changes when population density rises, this paper examines actions farmers may take to control whether population density rises. Using information from ethnographic fieldwork, colonial archives, and air photography, two agricultural groups migrating into an agricultural frontier in the Nigerian savanna are compared. Population density in Kofyar communities has risen to over 100/km ² ; Tiv communities, although older, have maintained population densities of around 50/km ² , in part through intimidation of encroachers. This use of intimidation is a component of a distinctive adaptive strategy that includes settlement stability, high population mobility tied to witchcraft accusations, relatively extensive cultivation allowing considerable off-time, and reliance on social networks to facilitate residential mobility and land access. Population pressure must be seen as an integral part of this adaptive strategy, rather than as cause or consequence.     

Reproductive cycle of Triplophysa stenura (Herzenstein, 1888) (Balitoridae: Nemacheilinae) from the Yarlung Tsangpo River in the Tibetan Plateau,China

The reproductive biology of Triplophysa stenura, an indigenous cyprinid species from the Qushui County in the middle of the Yarlung Tsangpo River in the Tibetan Plateau, China, was investigated by bimonthly sampling from May 2014 to April 2015 using electrofishing. The gonadosomatic index (GSI) of T. stenura differed significantly between males and females over the seasonal trend, indicating that spawning extends from March (shortly after the ice melts) to May, as observed for indigenous species in response to environmental conditions on the cold plateau. Average oocyte diameter was 0.66 ± 0.13 mm, whereby the oocyte diameter distribution exhibited a clear seasonal pattern as the temporal pattern of GSI. Absolute fecundity of T. stenura was 3999 eggs/individual, which increased significantly with the increase in fish size and gonad weight, demonstrating the relationship of an exponential equation between them.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Kuth</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Saussurea lappa</Emphasis>) cultivation in the cold desert environment of the Lahaul valley,northwestern Himalaya,India: arising threats and need to revive socio-economic values

Surveys were conducted in the cold desert environment of the Lahaul valley in the northwestern Himalaya for assessing the past and present status of Kuth (Saussurea lappa) cultivation. The findings reveal that this age-old practice now is in bottleneck. Main factors responsible for this setback to the species were the lengthy cultivation cycle, small land holdings, and even fluctuating and relatively low market prices. Owing to these constraints farmers have now started replacing cultivation of this threatened herb with pea (Pisum sativum L.), potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) and hop (Humulus lupulus L.). These crops obtained popularity due to comparatively more economic returns as well as their easy adaptability to the short growth season of the cold desert environment. Kuth cultivation in this region is among the interesting examples of domesticating wild medicinal herb by some innovative farmers during the 1920s. However, in the recent past farmers have been less interested to continue this practice due to its larger cultivation cycle, more profits with cash crops like pea and potato, and permit formalities at the time of export from the valley. In addition to being the oldest cash crop in the cold desert environment, Kuth is an endangered medicinal herb that has to be conserved on a priority basis. This study attempts to find out potential measures such as regular revision of market rates, development of existing uncultivable land under medicinal plant cultivation and strengthening the marketing network through establishment of federations of farmers at village level to revive cultivation of this important species.     

Cultivation of Gracilaria on the sea-bottom in southern Chile: a review

This review contains information about the cultivation techniques, strategies, problems and new challenges faced as well as an economic analysis of the income-producing capacity of Gracilaria farming, considering the variability of environmental systems where this alga is cultivated in southern Chile. The development of Gracilaria farming in Chile was made possible by an increased market demand, as well as the existence of basic knowledge that permitted the management of wild stocks and the initiation of cultivation practices. Subtidal cultivation systems appear to be more productive than intertidal systems and are less susceptible to wave action than intertidal cultivation areas. In relation to farming practices, this difference implies that planting and harvesting methods and strategies vary between habitats where cultivation is being carried out on a commercial scale. Several problems such as the environmental impact of different cultivation methods adopted by the farmers, the management of contaminating organisms and strain selection appear to be important and new areas for future research. Finally, an analysis of the income-producing capacity indicates that environmental differences also have important consequences for the management strategies of Gracilaria cultivation.     

Prospects for the cultivation of economically important carrageenophytes in Southeast Mexico

Carrageenan, a hydrocolloid used in the food and pharmaceutical industry mainly as a thickener and stabilizer, has an annual global market of US $450 million. In Mexico, carrageenan imports doubled during the last years, reaching 4,400 t in 2008. Any carrageenan industrial project demands a regular supply of raw material from reliable sources capable to meet and maintain required volumes and qualities. Some carrageenophytes have been exploited traditionally in Baja California Peninsula (i.e., Chondracanthus canaliculatus). The recent demand, however, for carrageenan has increased the development of cultivation of economically important seaweeds mainly in the tropics. In the Yucatan peninsula, experimental cultivation of native and exotic species has been carried out during the last 10 years. Eucheuma isiforme, Solieria filiformis, Halymenia floresii, and the introduced Kappaphycus alvarezii represent potential raw material sources for the production of carrageenan. Demand for iota carrageenan-producing species which could be sourced from native species is not a market priority. On the contrary, the most in demand are kappa and lambda carrageenan-producing species. In this study, we analyze the prospects for the commercial cultivation of tropical economically important seaweeds in the Yucatan peninsula.     

Impact of land use on plant biodiversity and measures for biodiversity conservation in the Loess Plateau in China – a case study in a hilly-gully region of the Northern Loess Plateau

The Loess Plateau is a special natural–cultural unit in northern China. Intensive land use in the past has had, and forestation and grass planting at present will have inevitable impacts on plant biodiversity in the Loess Plateau. Based on the analysis of floristic features within three sampling sites with different land use practices and analysis of species richness among different land use types, we discuss impacts of land use on species richness and floristic features in the Northern Loess Plateau. The results drawn from this case study are as follows: (1) It appears that forestation and grass planting have had a positive influence on the local species diversity, but they have contributed little to the native vegetation in terms of conserving its floristic features. (2) Caragana intermedia shrubland, Pinus tabulaeformis forestland, and natural grassland have made important contributions to supporting indigenous species and maintaining local plant biodiversity. (3) There is a significant positive correlation between land use diversity and species richness. These results imply that practicing biodiversity conservation in situ is feasible and the suitable choice for the Loess Plateau. Concrete measures for biodiversity conservation in the area can include setting up small nature reserves and diversifying land use patterns to maintain as much habitat as possible for native vegetation. The artificial Hippophae rhamnoides shrubland should not be further promoted, considering its negative influence on biodiversity conservation.     

黄土高原石油污染土壤微生物群落结构及其代谢特征

针对污染胁迫下土壤微生物群落变化和代谢变异等问题,基于平板稀释法和Biolog微平板分析方法,研究了陕北黄土高原石油污染土壤微生物群落结构、代谢特征及其功能多样性。结果表明,不同类群的土壤微生物对石油污染胁迫的响应不同,污染土壤细菌和真菌数量高出清洁土壤1个数量级,而污染土壤的放线菌数量极显著减少(P0.01);污染土壤和清洁土壤微生物对糖类和多聚物类碳源较易利用,污染土壤微生物总体上代谢碳源的种类和活性均低于清洁土壤。微生物群落主成分分析(PCA)表明,石油污染土壤和清洁土壤的微生物群落存在显著差异(P0.01),起分异作用的碳源主要为糖类,其次是羧酸类和氨基酸类;随着土壤石油含量增加,典型变量值变异(离散)增大,土壤微生物群落结构稳定性降低。微生物群落多样性分析表明,Shannon丰富度指数(H)、McIntosh均一度指数(U)和Simpson优势度指数(1/D)均达到极显著差异(P0.01),污染土壤微生物群落H和U低于清洁土壤,但是一定浓度的石油污染可以刺激土壤微生物群落中优势种群的生长,1/D增高。研究结果为陕北黄土高原石油污染区土壤微生物修复提供理论基础。     

黄土丘陵区6种侧蒴藓类植物营养繁殖特征

侧蒴藓类植物是苔藓植物中体型较大的类群,形态结构复杂,在水土保持、水源涵养等方面有巨大的应用潜力。该研究以黄土丘陵区6种常见侧蒴藓类植物为材料,采用人工气候室培养,研究了不同侧蒴藓类植物营养繁殖特征及种间差异。结果显示：（1）6种侧蒴藓类植物具有较强的繁殖能力,平均10 d和17 d均萌发新配子体和原丝体;营养繁殖中,6种藓新配子体萌发时间早于原丝体,其中青藓（Brachythecyum albicans）的新配子体萌发最早,镰叶灰藓（Hypnum bambergeri）萌发最晚。（2）6种藓新配子体的发枝长度、发枝数量在培养过程中均呈先增加后平稳的趋势,发枝长度在萌发后第21天均趋于平稳,发枝数量在第28天时均趋于平稳;藓盖度除柳叶藓（Amblystegium serpens）在培养结束前继续增加外其余藓种在生长42 d后趋于平稳,其中青藓的发枝长度、发枝数量、盖度增幅最明显,分别较萌发前增加4.73 mm、1.53条、46.22%。（3）6种藓盖度、新配子体发枝长度及发枝数量的增长速率差异显著,其中青藓3个指标的增长速率均显著高于其他藓种（P<0.05）,分别为0.97%·d^-1、0.24 mm·d^-1和0.101 条·d^-1。发枝长度增加速率最慢的是鳞叶藓（Taxiphyllum taxirameums）,为0.17 mm·d^-1、发枝数量增加速率最慢的是镰叶灰藓,为0.041条·d^-1、盖度增加速率最慢的是荫地绢藓（Entodon caliginosus）,为0.46%·d^-1。结果表明,黄土丘陵区6种常见侧蒴藓类植物通过人工培养均可进行营养繁殖,但营养繁殖存在种间差异,其中青藓的营养繁殖能力优势显著。本研究明确了侧蒴藓类植物营养繁殖特征及人工培养的可能性,可为该藓类植物在水土保持及生态恢复中的应用提供科学依据。     

Modern ticuna swidden-fallow management in the Colombian Amazon: Ecologically integrating market strategies and subsistence-driven economies?

The past failure of large-scale, rural development in Amazonia has emphasized the value of small-scale, swidden-fallow management practices. The management strategies used by indigenous cultivators are well-documented, but few studies have examined how absorption by market-based economies may affect the economic and ecological stability of the agricultural system. In this study, we provide a detailed account of swidden-fallow management as it is practiced at Las Palmeras, Amazonas, Colombia; moreover, we assessed the effect of a shift from subsistence to market-directed production. A total of 68 species were selectively managed in the swidden/fallow system. Seventy-seven percent of species at the site were managed for subsistence only, 22% were managed with a view to selling surplus at market. Only one species, Cedrela odorata, was managed solely for market production. A shift from subsistence-based to market-directed production may lower the ecological and economic stability of the system at Las Palmeras. Nonperishable production strategies, such as for timber production, appear to provide the most secure approach toward market integration.     

Effects of cultivation years on effective constituent content of Fritillaria pallidiflora Schernk

Fritillaria pallidiflora Schrenk has been treasured in traditional classic medicine as an antitussive, antiasthmatic and expectorant for hundreds of years. With gradually decreasing wild F. pallidiflora resources, the herb can no longer satisfy the demand. Artificial cultivation is one of the most effective ways to solve the contradiction between supply and demand in the medicinal material market. During the growth of Rhizomes medicinal plants, root biomass and active ingredient content showed dynamic accumulated variation with increasing cultivation years. Up to now, hardly any attempts have been made to investigate the relationship between quality and cultivation years of F. pallidiflora. Therefore, in this paper, we determined the optimum harvesting time by comparing biomass and biological characteristics of F. pallidiflora at different cultivation times. High-performance liquid chromatography with evaporative light scattering detection and phenol-sulfuric acid visible spectrophotometry was performed to determine imperialine and polysaccharide content of F. pallidiflora bulbs. From year 1 to 6 of cultivation, we observed an upward trend in plant height, diameter and dry weight of F. pallidiflora, while water content decreased. Plant height and dry weight increased remarkably during the fourth year of cultivation. The content of imperialine and polysaccharide of F. pallidiflora bulbs, on the other hand, showed an upward trend from year 1 to 3, after which it decreased from year 3 to 6. By comparing plant growth, biomass development and the accumulation of imperialine and polysaccharide, the best harvesting time of F. pallidiflora was determined to be after 4 years of cultivation. Our results showed that it is possible to establish a “safe, effective, stable and controllable” production process, which could play an important role in achieving sustainable utilization of F. pallidiflora resources.     

STUDIES OF PACIFIC ISLAND PLANTS. XXVII. THE GENUS GARDENIA (RUBIACEAE) IN THE FIJIAN REGION

The genus Gardenia (Rubiaceae), noted for its beautiful and fragrant flowers, is widespread throughout the Old World tropics. In the Fijian Region it is represented by eleven indigenous species, of which eight are endemic to Fiji; an additional oriental species is occasionally found in cultivation. The taxonomic relationships and nomenclature of these species are discussed, and one new Fijian species, G. anapetes, is described.     

Three‐phase succession of autochthonous lactic acid bacteria to reach a stable ecosystem within 7 days of natural bamboo shoot fermentation as revealed by different molecular approaches

Microbial community structure and population dynamics during spontaneous bamboo shoot fermentation for production of ‘soidon’ (indigenous fermented food) in North‐east India were studied using cultivation‐dependent and cultivation‐independent molecular approaches. Cultivation‐dependent analyses (PCR‐amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis and rRNA gene sequencing) and cultivation‐independent analyses (PCR‐DGGE, qPCR and Illumina amplicon sequencing) were conducted on the time series samples collected from three independent indigenous soidon fermentation batches. The current findings revealed three‐phase succession of autochthonous lactic acid bacteria to attain a stable ecosystem within 7 days natural fermentation of bamboo shoots. Weissella spp. (Weissella cibaria, uncultured Weissella ghanensis) and Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris predominated the early phase (1–2 days) which was joined by Leuconostoc citreum during the mid‐phase (3 days), while Lactobacillus brevis and Lactobacillus plantarum emerged and became dominant in the late phase (5–7 days) with concurrent disappearance of W. cibaria and L. lactis subsp. cremoris. Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis and uncultured Lactobacillus acetotolerans were predominantly present throughout the fermentation with no visible dynamics. The above identified dominant bacterial species along with their dynamics can be effectively utilized for designing a starter culture for industrialization of soidon production. Our results showed that a more realistic view on the microbial ecology of soidon fermentation could be obtained by cultivation‐dependent studies complemented with cultivation‐independent molecular approaches. Moreover, the critical issues to be considered for reducing methodological biases while studying the microbial ecology of traditional food fermentation were also highlighted with this soidon fermentation model.     

Population Growth and Land Use Intensification in a Subsistence-based Indigenous Community in the Amazon

Shifting cultivation practiced by indigenous peoples living at low population densities in tropical forests has often been described as sustainable and compatible with conservation. However, shifting cultivation at increasing population densities has historically been, and still is, a main cause of deforestation worldwide. As many indigenous peoples in tropical forests currently experience rapid demographic growth, this raises the question to what extent their agricultural activities actually contribute to deforestation. This paper examines land use change in an indigenous community in the Ecuadorian Amazon which is only loosely connected to the market economy, and where agriculture is almost exclusively subsistence oriented. During the last seven decades, people have increasingly begun to clear fallows instead of old-growth forest to farm. Although the population was growing at an estimated 1.6% per year, the expansion of the area of land used for agriculture was only 0.4% per year, corresponding to an annual deforestation rate of only 0.015%. Whereas these changes may seem negligible in terms of deforestation, they do cause hardships to the local people, because of increasing walking distance to old-growth forest, and problems with weeds, pests, and decreasing soil productivity when farming after reclearing fallows.     

Advances in research of the artificial cultivation of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in China

Abstract

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (syn. Cordyceps sinensis), a traditional Chinese medicine called DongChongXiaCao (DCXC) in Chinese, is well known and has been used in Asia countries since the fifteenth century, and it contains some valuable medicinal component defined by modern pharmacological science. DCXC only appears at high altitudes on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Consequently, it is difficult to find and harvest. Because of its rarity and medicinal value, DCXC has always been one of the most expensive medicines known. As the price of DCXC has risen in recent years, thousands of migrants have entered into the various grasslands to search for them in season, which makes ecological environments of the grassland more fragile. In order to relieve the environmental pressures and protect this valuable resource, the artificial cultivation of DCXC involving two aspects of the genus Hepialus and the fungi of the host larvae should be employed and applied at the first available time point. In this article, the reproduction of moth larvae of the genus Hepialus is first described, which includes their ecological characteristics and the methods of artificial feeding. Second, the generation and isolation method of the fungi from DCXC are subsequently summarized, and then the mechanism of fungal spores to attack the moth larvae are restated. Finally, the basic model of artificial cultivation of DCXC is introduced; meanwhile, the potential application of modern biotechnology to the artificial cultivation is analyzed in prospect. This review article will not only expand people’s knowledge regarding the artificial cultivation of DCXC, but also hopefully provide an informative reference for the development of this valuable resource and the environmental protection of alpine meadows.     

Market Incorporation, Agricultural Change, and Sustainability Among the Machiguenga Indians of the Peruvian Amazon

By marshaling empirical data from five Machiguenga communities studied over 20 years, this paper disputes two common assumptions about the behavior of indigenous peoples in the face of increasing commercialization. First, many Amazonian researchers suggest that the social and ecological deterioration confronting native populations results from externally-imposed political, legal and market structures that compel local groups to pursue short-term, unstable economic strategies. Second, these structural explanations are combined with the increasing recognition that indigenous peoples possess a substantial agroecological knowledge to suggest that, if indigenous people receive control of adequate land and resources, they will implement their traditional knowledge in conservative resource management practices. In contrast to these assumptions, this analysis shows that the Machiguenga are not compelled by external forces (such as land tenure, migration policies or economic trends), but instead are active enthusiastic participants seeking to engage the market in order to acquire western goods. Further, despite highly adaptive traditional subsistence patterns and a vast agroecological knowledge, households and communities facing increasing degrees of market integration are progressively altering their traditional cropping strategies, planting practices, labor allocation and land use patterns toward a greater emphasis on commodity crop production and domesticated animal breeding. This increasing concentration on income generating activities subverts the environmentally-friendly nature of traditional productive practices and creates a socially, economically, and ecologically unsustainable system.     

The “banana tree at the gate”: Perceptions of production ofPiper nigrum (Piperaceae) in a seventeenth century malay state

This study is based on a remarkable seventeenth-century Malay court chronicle, in which the kingdom’s rulers issue injunctions on their death-beds against cultivating pepper (Piper nigrum Piperaceae) for the colonial trade. The rulers say that pepper cultivation will lead to expensive food stuffs, malice, government disorder, pretensions on the part of the subject peoples, and inevitably the destruction of the kingdom. The “fatal attraction” of pepper cultivation is likened, in an indigenous metaphor, to having a flourishing banana tree in front of one’s gate. Analysis of historic as well as contemporary evidence from Borneo suggests that this is a remarkably astute analysis of the relations of production in pepper cultivation, especially in the transition from small-scale household cultivation to larger-scale production with state involvement. This analysis demonstrates the potential value of historic, indigenous texts for the study of economic plants, and it also shows the value of historical depth for understanding contemporary issues.     

On-site growth response of a desert ephemeral plant, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Plantago minuta</Emphasis>, to indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a central Asia desert

Desert ephemeral plants play a key role in desert ecosystem stability and environmental conservation. To determine the effect of indigenous arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi on the growth and P uptake of the desert ephemeral Plantago minuta, we conducted two on-site experiments in the Gurbantunggut Desert. The co-development of a pre-isolated indigenous AM fungus, Glomus etunicatum, with the ephemeral was also investigated. The results showed that both the single fungus and the indigenous AM fungal community enhanced the growth and P uptake of P. minuta. The phenological phases of P. minuta were highly consistent with the phases of the indigenous AM fungus, G. etunicatum, indicating that both symbiotic partners seem to be able to sense the changes in local weather, which might be an important trait for the survival of both plant and fungus in desert environments. The development of host plant and indigenous AM fungi were interdependent in the desert.     

Surface Percolation for Soil Improvement by Biocementation Utilizing In Situ Enriched Indigenous Aerobic and Anaerobic Ureolytic Soil Microorganisms

The use of biocementation via microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) for improving the mechanical properties of weak soils in the laboratory has gained increased attention in recent years. This study proposes an approach for applying biocementation in situ, by combining the surface percolation of nutrients and cementation solution (urea/CaCl₂) with in situ cultivation of indigenous soil urease positive microorganisms under non-sterile conditions. The enrichment of indigenous ureolytic soil bacteria was firstly tested in batch reactors. Using selective conditions (i.e., pH of 10 and urea concentrations of 0.17 M), highly active ureolytic microorganisms were enriched from four diverse soil samples under both oxygen-limited (anoxic) and oxygen-free (strictly anaerobic) conditions, providing final urease activities of more than 10 and 5 U/mL, respectively. The enrichment of indigenous ureolytic soil microorganisms was secondly tested in pure silica sand columns (300 and 1000 mm) for biocementation applications using the surface percolation approach. By applying the same selective conditions, the indigenous ureolytic soil microorganisms with high urease activity were also successfully enriched for both the fine and coarse sand columns. However, the in situ enriched urease activity was highly related to the dissolved oxygen of the percolated growth medium. The results showed that the in situ cultivated urease activity may produce non-clogging cementation over the entire 1000-mm columns, with unconfined compressive strength varying between 850–1560 kPa (for coarse sand) and 150–700 kPa (for fine sand), after 10 subsequent applications of cementation solution. The typically observed loss of ureolytic activity during the repeated application of the cementation solution was recovered by providing more growth medium under selective enrichment conditions, enabling the in situ enriched ureolytic microorganisms to increase in numbers and urease activity in such a way that continued cementation was possible.