Winter nests of the hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus L.)

Summary An account is given of the winter nests of the hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus L.), and their importance in the life of this species.Nests were constructed for protection during hibernation, in sites chosen for the degree of support gained from surrounding objects. They were usually made mainly of dry leaves, specially selected and carefully built into a robust weatherproof structure, by a method appropriate both to the hedgehog and the materials used. Construction of winter nests was closely correlated with environmental temperature.The life history of hibernacula is reviewed and it is shown that nests may persist for well over a year, though the leaves of which they are made normally decay completely in a much shorter time. Nests built in brambles, with plenty of support last longer than those in less preferred sites.The construction of winter nests was strictly seasonal, but their decay was gradual, with rapid deterioration at the end of the winter. About 30% of nests persisted till the following winter, though were not re-occupied.Over half of the nests built were occupied for one month or less, though some were in continuous use for up to six months. New nests were built even in midwinter, but the likelihood of their being occupied immediately was affected by the weather. Hedgehogs rarely shared a nest, though empty nests were sometimes taken over by small mammals or Hymenoptera.Most hedgehogs that died in their nests during winter were juveniles perhaps too inexperienced to construct an adequately protective nest.The importance of the nest in a hedgehog's life, particularly during hibernation may be a significant feature in determining both its distribution and its habitat choice.     

Overwintering of European hedgehogs<Emphasis Type="Italic">Erinaceus europaeus</Emphasis> in a Danish rural area

Ten radio-tagged hedgehogsErinaceus europaeus (Linnaeus, 1758) were monitored during the winter of 2001/2002 in a Danish rural area. The study was aimed at measuring parameters essential for hibernation success and the fate of the mainly juvenile hedgehogs being recorded. The average duration of hibernation was found to be 179 days for juveniles (n=6) and 198 days for adult females (n=3). The most often used nesting habitat types were forested areas (55%). The hedgehogs typically used 2 nests during the hibernation period, but up to 4 different nests used by one hedgehog were found. Time spent in different nests varied considerably (6-187 days). The average weight loss during hibernation was 22.1% for juveniles and 30.2% for adult females. Minimum body mass sufficient for survival was registered to be 513 g prior to hibernation. Nine of the hedgehogs survived until departure from their hibernacula, while the fate of 1 juvenile is unknown. Indication was thus found that the minimum weight required to survive the winter has previously been overestimated.     

Nest sites,breeding cycle and possible cleptoparasites of Monoeca catarina Aguiar (Hymenoptera,Apidae, Tapinotaspidini) from Santa Catarina Island,southern Brazil

ABSTRACT

The recently described solitary bee Monoeca catarina Aguiar (Apidae, Tapinotaspidini) is only known from two nest aggregations on Santa Catarina Island, state of Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Nests are excavated in sandy soils along trails near dunes and beaches. Up to 287 nests were counted in one aggregation. Bees were active for about seven weeks from late November to mid-January suggesting a univoltine life cycle. Males perform patrolling flights over the nest area and mate with females sitting on low vegetation. Males and females visited Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Verbenaceae) for nectar, and females were observed foraging on Tetrapterys sp. or Heteropterys sp. flowers (Malpighiaceae). Pollen loads consisted almost exclusively of Malpighiaceae pollen. Potential natural enemies are the cleptoparasitic bee Protosiris Roig-Alsina sp. (Apidae, Osirini) recorded within the aggregations, and the mutillid wasp Hoplocrates specularis (Gerstaecker) (Mutillidae, Sphaeropthalmini) seen entering the Monoeca nests and mating within the aggregations. Except for the soil characteristics, our observations on nesting and foraging behavior and associated potential enemies fit well into the facts reported from other Monoeca species.     

Nesting biology and food habits of the endangered Sakalava Rail Amaurornis olivieri in the Mandrozo Protected Area,western Madagascar§

We studied the nesting biology and food habits of the endangered and endemic Sakalava Rail Amaurornis olivieri from July to November 2015 in the Mandrozo Protected Area, western Madagascar. Three nesting pairs were observed and their nests were constructed in a dense mat of reeds Phragmites mauritianus and averaged 56.7 ± 15.3 cm above the water (n = 3 nests). Nests were built by both adults and it took 3 d on average to complete a nest (n = 2 nests). Thirteen matings were observed and lasted 4.1 s on average (n = 2 pairs). Average clutch size was three eggs (n = 2 nests). Both sexes incubated; the incubation period was 15–17 d (n = 2 nests). Both male and female participated in brooding and feeding the young, which remained for 3 d in the nest and became independent of their parents at 45 d of age. Based on 194 identified food items, the Sakalava Rail’s diet was composed of invertebrates: spiders (53.1%), insects (32%), crustaceans (10.8%) and molluscs (4.1%). The home ranges of two radio-tagged individuals were 0.95 and 1.98 ha.     

Design of a GPS backpack to track European hedgehogs <Emphasis Type="Italic">Erinaceus europaeus</Emphasis>

We report on the design and construction of a Global Positioning System (GPS) backpack to collect positional data of European hedgehogs Erinaceus europaeus. The device consisted of a microGPS unit plus a VHF transmitter to facilitate unit recovery. It was constructed to articulate when the animal rolled up and to prevent snagging on objects or nests. Backpacks were fitted to 28 hedgehogs with eight reattachments at different seasons (N = 36 samples). Units fixed hedgehog positions at high rate for an average of 5 days to address our study on spatial ecology at fine scale. We recorded the normal execution of defensive rolling behaviour, impediments on natural movements across vegetation and nest occupancy, and also changes in body mass. We could not discern any negative effect associated with the backpack for attachments up to 8 days; hence, we consider this design to be appropriate for tracking European hedgehogs over this length of time.     

Nesting Biology of Microstigmus thripoctenus Richards, with a Study on Nest Recognition (Hymenoptera: Crabronidae)

In a study carried out on Microstigmus thripoctenus on Barro Colorado Island (Republic of Panama) between March and May 1998, 29 active nests were located. The nests contained between one and seven cells, with one (female) to six (three females and three males) adults. Using simple manipulations in which wasps were offered a choice between experimentally emptied foreign nests and their own nest when the adults were away, it was observed that returning adults were able to recognize their own nest. Foreign nests were always rejected by females coming from nests with a single adult, whereas individuals from nests with several adults in five of seven cases did accept the foreign nests, continuing their normal activities in them, without destroying their contents. Adopted foreign nests were inspected at a higher rate following adoption. Nests containing several adults tended to remain longer on leaves supporting them, and their external surfaces were inspected more frequently and longer than those of nests containing only one occupant. Nests are not associated with any particular plant and were found attached to leaves of 19 species of understory plants.     

Nesting biology of Asian paper wasps Polistes chinensis antennalis Pérez,and Australian paper wasps P. humilis (Fab.) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) in northern New Zealand

Abstract

We recorded the numbers of cells, and where possible distinguished between cells containing pupating larvae and vacated cells, from 585 paper wasp nests from the northern North Island, New Zealand, plus nest site characteristics of 540 of these nests. Nests of Polistes chinensis antennalis and P. humilis developed at similar rates in early summer. P. c. antennalis nests were larger at the Post‐emergence stage than those of P. humilis, and contained more vacated cells but less capped cells. All of the P. c. antennalis nests had reached the Post‐emergence stage by February in Northland, but not in the other regions. P. c. antennalis nests in the Post‐emergence stage were larger in Northland than further south, and contained the most capped or vacated cells. Nests of both species were usually found in northern‐facing sites. Substrate did not affect nest size. Differences between the species in nest sites included greater use of manmade structures by P. c. antennalis; the use of leaves by P. humilis only; and a higher average nest site height in P. humilis. These differences in nest site selection may reduce competition between the species.     

5. FIELD OBSERVATIONS,NORTHERN PROVINCE,NORTHERN RHODESIA

Cooper, J. 1986. Biology of the Bank Cormorant, Part 4: Nest construction and characteristics. Ostrich 57: 170–179.

Bank Cormorants Phalacrocorax neglectus construct their nests of material gathered by diving. Males undertake diving bouts of approximately 3–5 min, made up of several dives lasting on average 28 s. Nest material is gathered throughout the breeding cycle: number of diving bouts per day varies from a mean of 7,6 during pre-egg laying to 1,5 bouts per day when rearing young in the nest. Nest building recommences within 24 h of loss of nest due to storms. Both sexes occasionally steal nest material from the nests of neighbours. Bank Cormorants sometimes defecate onto their nests. This is assumed to make the nests better able to withstand rough seas. Nest construction takes approximately 34 d, a period similar to that of other ground-nesting species of cormorants. Construction of a nest in 34 d represents 238 diving bouts of a total duration of 18 h. Nests are heavy (up to 6 kg) and are made up primarily of seaweed. Feathers, sticks and artificial material are also incorporated into the nest. Bank Cormorant nests are large (up to 54 litres in total volume). Nests do not change significantly in size between egg laying and hatching. Nests in which at least one egg hatches are larger in all dimensions measured than those in which no eggs hatch. Nests are larger at the time of laying of repeat clutches than at the time of laying the first clutch. The Bank Cormorant's seaweed nest has enabled it to breed on bare offshore rocks where no nest material exists. The species' large nest is a necessary prerequisite for successful breeding close to the sea.     

A geographically extensive survey of hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) in England

A hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) survey was conducted in four regions of west and south-west England during the summer of 2006. In each region, surveys were conducted in a series of 15–18 survey areas each of which contained 1–4 paired amenity grassland (recreation ground, sports field, and village green) and permanent pasture survey sites. Each pair of survey sites was surveyed for hedgehogs using night-time lamped searches during two separate survey periods. Located hedgehogs were sexed, weighed, and aged. The density of hedgehogs on individual sites was based on the maximum number of hedgehogs recorded during any one of the two surveys. The occurrence of hedgehogs on pasture (2 % of fields) was much lower than that on amenity grassland (26 % of fields), resulting in mean densities of hedgehogs that were significantly greater on amenity grassland than on pasture in all four regions. The density of hedgehogs was 0.47?±?0.09 ha^?1 on amenity grassland and 0.04?±?0.02 ha^?1 on pasture (mean?±?standard error). This study represents a geographically extensive and locally intensive hedgehog field survey in England and produces results that are spatially and temporally concurrent with wildlife surveys of another ecologically linked species, the badger (Meles meles).     

Nesting patterns of European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) under northern conditions

Little information exists on the nesting of hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) in the harsh northern environment, although this aspect has specific importance for the species’ survival in this region. We studied the nest types and nesting site selection of radio tagged hedgehogs in urban areas in Eastern Finland. Altogether, four different nest types were discovered and one of them (the pre-hibernation nest) is described here for the first time. Hedgehogs preferred residential areas for nesting during the mating and post-mating seasons while in the pre-hibernation season and hibernation period nesting was more common in forest areas. Nest constructions were closely related to materials found in the nest vicinity. During the active period, males used on average 24 nests and changed them 30 times, whereas females used 17 nests and changed them 26 times. The number of female nests and frequency of nest change increased from post-mating to pre-hibernation seasons, while in males both decreased. In general, female and male nests were situated within their established long-term home range, but in the pre-hibernation season over 30 % of male nests were situated outside of it. In post-mating and pre-hibernation seasons, females avoided other individuals of the same sex; this was demonstrated by the lack of nests in other female core areas. Hedgehogs hibernate for around 223 days, which is the longest reported hibernation period for this species. The results of the present study emphasise the importance of forest and diverse residential areas including forest patches for the hedgehog’s nesting habitat.     

Effects of Large-Scale Predator Reduction on Nest Success of Upland Nesting Ducks

ABSTRACT Population growth for mallards (Anas platyrhynchos), and presumably other upland nesting ducks, in the Prairie Pothole Region of the United States and Canada is most sensitive to nest success, and nest success is most strongly influenced by predation. We evaluated the efficacy of reducing predator populations to improve nest success of upland nesting ducks on township-sized (93.2 km²) management units in eastern North Dakota, USA, during 2005–2007. We monitored 7,489 nests on 7 trapped and 5 nontrapped sites. Trappers annually removed an average of 245 predators per trapped site, and we found nest success to be 1.4–1.9 times greater on trapped sites than nontrapped sites, depending on year. Nest success was greater on both trapped and nontrapped sites when compared with a study conducted in the same areas in the mid-1990s, likely because of changes in red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and coyote (Canis latrans) population dynamics. Nests initiated midseason had higher daily survival rates (DSR) than those initiated earlier or later in the season. Daily survival rates for nests in the middle of the nesting cycle were higher than for nests that were early in laying or late in incubation. Nests near the periphery of trapped sites had slightly higher DSRs than nests in the center of trapped sites. Predator reduction at the township scale provides managers with an effective tool to improve nest success at large spatial scales.     

Nest demographics and foraging behavior of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apterostigma collare</Emphasis> Emery (Hymenoptera,Formicidae) provide evidence of colony independence

Apterostigma collare Emery is a highly derived fungus-growing ant within the Tribe Attini whose small, fungal nests are found in tropical rain forests. This study focuses on determining the colony structure of A. collare, specifically searching for evidence of polydomy or independence. We surveyed and observed nests in the field, and performed foraging bioassays and dissected nests in the laboratory. We determined the size and contents of nests in field populations. Nests found near other nests were not statistically different in size compared to nests found alone. There was also no statistical difference between near and lone nests regarding the presence of a queen in the nest. Most nests contained one queen with brood and workers, regardless of their proximity to other nests. Observations also were made of foraging and trail-marking behaviors. Foraging activity observed in the field revealed that workers left the nest area and followed trails upwards into the canopy, but they did not interact with foragers from other nearby nests. In a laboratory foraging arena, foragers marked a trail to a food source by dragging the gaster. Bioassays showed that A. collare workers preferred their own foraging trails, but not those of other conspecific colonies. All results suggest that each nest represents an independent colony, supporting a previous report that nests found in close proximity do not constitute a polydomous colony. Received 19 July 2006; revised 23 March 2007; accepted 6 June 2007.     

Spawning ecology of the American brook lamprey, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lampetra appendix</Emphasis>

Synopsis We observed spawning American brook lamprey, Lampetra appendix, in coldwater streams in Minnesota to assess various aspects of their spawning behavior and spawning habitat requirements. Spawning occurred during April and May, at water temperatures ranging from 8.7 to 15.5°C. Average adult lamprey length and mass differed significantly among streams, but there were no significant differences in length or mass between males and females. Overall sex ratio was 1:1, although one stream had significantly more males than females and one stream held significantly more females. Lampreys spawned in groups of 2–14 individuals, averaging 4.2 adults per nest across all streams. Nests were constructed in gravel and cobble substrate just upstream of riffles, spaced at an average density of three nests m⁻². The typical nest was 16 cm in diameter in water 31 cm deep with a bottom current velocity of 14 cm s⁻¹, and was excavated to a depth of 4 cm below the stream bottom; however, some nest characteristics varied significantly in a few streams. Nests were larger in streams with larger spawning groups, deeper water, and slower current velocities. American brook lamprey exhibited spawning behaviors and spawning habitat requirements similar to those of other species of lamprey in North America.     

Population structure of Leptothorax ambiguus,a facultatively polygynous and polydomous ant species

We examined the genetic and spatial structure of Leptothorax ambiguus in a Vermont site. Nests of this tiny ant species have variable queen number and comprise larger polydomous colonies, as do their closest relatives in North America. Nests are patchily distributed in the forest, and sometimes occur in local abundance. We collected 121 nests in four years from plots in which all nests were mapped; furthermore, we subjected nests collected in two separate years to starch gel electrophoresis and estimated relatedness according to the Queller—Goodnight (1989) algorithm. Queens that share a nest site also share 33% of their alleles on average, and relatedness among worker nestmates is about 0.5. The existence of diploid males and nonzero F-values demonstrate inbreeding in this species, an unusual phenomenon for social insects in general. Mapping data showed that nests with like genotypes tended to cluster in space, forming polydomous colonies. Colonies consisted of 1–6 nest subunits, and about half of all colonies were polygynous. We compare these features of L. ambiguus to its close relative L. longispinosus and a European congener L. acervorum. These comparisons allow us to conclude that an interplay between ecological and genetic factors produces the observed pattern of multiple queening and nest spatial distribution in this species.     

Nest-site selection and predation in Savi's Warblers Locustella luscinioides

Capsule Savi's Warblers preferred sites dominated by high and dense Juncus and Rubus with thick litter, and avoided pure reeds; predation was higher in sites with less litter.

Aim To describe nest-site selection and identify which habitat and nest features influence predation risk.

Methods Comparisons were made between habitat characteristics measured at nest-sites and random points, and between predated and successful nests.

Results Total vegetation cover, litter thickness, habitat type, undergrowth height and undergrowth cover, which were higher or denser at nest-sites, were the most important variables influencing the distribution of Savi's Warbler nests. Nests were most often predated in sites with low litter thickness.

Conclusion Savi's Warblers are dependent on the presence of dense low vegetation and litter for nesting, which should be maintained close to or within reed-beds for their benefit.     

Breeding biology of the Cape Parrot,Poicephalus robustus

Breeding biology and nesting requirements of Cape Parrots in their natural habitat and in captivity were investigated. Few nests were found, suggesting that nest-sites are limiting, and that the parrots have specific nesting requirements. Nests were secondary cavities in dead Podocarpus spp. (branches), high up in forest canopy trees. Breeding usually occurred from August to February, but was observed in other months, particularly in captive birds. Clutch size varied from 2–5, incubation was by the female and lasted 28–30 days, with fledging a further 55–79 days. In captive birds the ovaries are mature at 2.5 years, but age at first breeding is usually at 4–6 years.     

Acquisition of Borrelia burgdorferi by Ixodes ricinus ticks fed on the European hedgehog,Erinaceus europaeus L

A hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus, was found to be heavily infested with larval and nymphal Ixodes ricinus in a forest park in Co. Galway, Ireland. A large proportion of the ticks that engorged and detached were infected with the spirochacte, Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of human Lyme borreliosis. The identity of these spirochaetes was confirmed by immunofluorescent assay with B. burgdorferi-specific monoclonal antibody and by polymerase chain reaction test and they were transmitted from the hedgehog to laboratory-reared ticks and from the ticks obtained from the hedgehog to gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus). The high infection rate of the larvae that fed on the hedgehog in comparison with unfed larvae from the same habitat was interpreted as strong evidence that this host species is reservoir competent. Since hedgehogs can evidently feed adult ticks as well as many immature stages, they may well have an important role in the ecology of Lyme borreliosis in some habitats.     

Breeding group size, nest position and breeding success in the chinstrap penguin

We studied the effect of breeding group size and nest position on breeding success in the chinstrap penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica). Large subcolonies sited at Vapour Col, Deception Island, had higher breeding success than small subcolonies, which suffered a higher chick mortality than large subcolonies. Hatching date was earlier in large colonies. Relationships were not found between mean hatching date per subcolony and mean chick survival. Chick mortality related to nest position showed no difference between central and peripheral nests in large subcolonies. Central nests hatched earlier than peripheral nests. Nests in large subcolonies, whatever their position, were more successful compared with nests in small subcolonies. Received: 16 April 1997 / Accepted: 12 July 1997     

Colony size,density and distribution of the leaf-cutting ant,Acromyrmex octospinosus (Reich) in cultivated fields

• 1 Fields of citrus, cacao and rubber in Trinidad were surveyed to measure the number and density of nests of Acromyrmex octospinosus. The greatest density (=153 nests/ha) was in an undisturbed field of young cacao; in established crops density ranged from 3–36 nests/ha.
• 2 Mounds of new nests appeared throughout the year, but most often 4–10 months after the main nuptial flights. Nests reached maximum size, with up to 17 holes, about three years after foundation.
• 3 The ratio of workers to brood was between 5 and 9: 1 for most of the year but it increased to 27: 1 as the sexuals developed. A medium-large colony produced 200–300 queens and males/year; the largest single nest contained about 14,000 individuals.
• 4 The average intake of leaf fragments into laboratory nests was 1 fragment/6.5 individuals. It increased to 1 fragment/2.1 individuals when sexuals were present. Foragers collecting from fields of established cacao preferred flowers to leaves.
• 5 In fields with crops planted on cambered beds, nests were concentrated on the dry edges of drains in the dry season, but they were moved to drier ground in the wet season. Nests were aggregated in 13 of the 16 fields examined, the remaining three fields were exceptionally well drained.
• 6 In newly planted cacao an estimated 6—17% of plants were defoliated and destroyed. In established cacao ants collected about 3000 flowers/ha each day. Laboratory data suggest that ants could defoliate about 25 three-year old citrus trees in a year.

     

Factors affecting hedgehog (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Erinaceus europaeus</Emphasis>) attraction to rural villages in arable landscapes

Although residential areas are often unfavourable for wildlife, some species can take advantage of the available shelter and anthropogenic sources of food such as supplementary feeding. The European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) is increasingly associated with gardens and villages and less so with arable farmland. Suggested drivers for this include the following: hedgehogs’ attraction to higher food densities, including natural prey and anthropogenic sources, a greater range of day nest sites and warmer microclimates in rural villages, coupled with decreased risk of predation by badgers (Meles meles). We investigated the contribution of these drivers by radio-tracking hedgehogs on four arable sites, two with badgers present. Seventy-eight hedgehogs were tracked, 32 yielding enough data to calculate home range sizes. At the home range and landscape scales, gardens and buildings were the highest ranked habitats compared with their availability. Woodland and arable land were the lowest ranked compared with their availability. Villages were the most selected habitat for nesting. When hedgehogs were found closer to buildings, their ranges were smaller and we speculate this is due to increased food availability in villages. Where badgers were present hedgehogs remained closer to cover and their home ranges were on average 12.2 ha smaller. On badger-occupied sites, 50% fewer radio-tracking fixes were on arable land. We conclude that resource availability coupled with nest site selection and badger presence drives hedgehogs’ selection of rural villages. We found no effect of ambient temperature on habitat use. We recommend focusing conservation efforts on maintaining hedgehog populations in rural villages.