APP/PS1年轻小鼠的早期学习记忆缺陷及血清注射治疗效果分析

目的:明确经典阿尔兹海默症(Alzheimer's Disease,AD)小鼠模型APP/PS1的年轻小鼠是否存在学习记忆障碍,并探讨尾静脉注射同龄小鼠的血清是否可以改善年老AD小鼠的认知能力。方法:根据转基因小鼠的基因型,将同龄小鼠分为wildtype(WT)和APP/PS1两组,首先用物体辨别实验(Novel object recognition,NOR)检测2个月龄小鼠的认知能力(90min retention:WT n=6,APP/PS1 n=8; 24hours retention:WT n=7, APP/PS1=8),同时用Morris水迷宫实验(Morris water maze,MWM)检测2个月龄小鼠的空间学习记忆能力(WT n=6, APP/PS1 n=5);采用内眦取血法从8月龄小鼠中获取全血,高速离心获得血清。将8月龄APP/PS1小鼠分为两组:对照组注射PBS(n=7),实验组注射血清(n=6),每周注射两次,100μL/只/次,连续注射3周。注射结束后,用NOR法检测对照组和实验组小鼠的认知能力。结果:NOR实验结果显示APP/PS1小鼠的辨别指数(Discrimination index(%))显著低于WT小鼠(P0.05);MWM实验结果显示APP/PS1小鼠到达平台的时间明显长于WT小鼠,同时在测试阶段中,APP/PS1小鼠在目的象限的探索时间及穿越次数显著低于WT小鼠(P0.05);治疗实验中,与对照组APP/PS1小鼠的辨别指数相比较,实验组APP/PS1小鼠在注射同龄小鼠的血清后,其物体辨别指数显著升高(P0.05),小鼠脑中的Aβ沉淀明显减少。结论:APP/PS1小鼠在2个月左右就会表现出明显的学习记忆障碍;注射正常同龄鼠的血清可以明显改善APP/PS1小鼠的学习记忆能力同时阻碍Aβ沉淀的形成。     

APP/PS1小鼠中PEG-PLA纳米粒的表面蛋白冠组成及其脑内递送的实验研究

摘要 目的：研究阿尔茨海默病（Alzhemer''s disease,AD）模型鼠中聚乙二醇聚乳酸（poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(l-lactide),PEG-PLA）纳米粒表面蛋白冠组成及其对脑内递送特性的影响。方法：制备PEG-PLA纳米粒,测定纳米粒的zeta电位及粒径,采用透射电子显微镜观察纳米粒形态。通过双光子显微镜观察APP/PS1小鼠与野生型（Wild Type,WT）小鼠脑内PEG-PLA纳米粒分布特性。采用液相色谱-质谱联用（LC-MS）技术对PEG-PLA纳米粒分别与APP/PS1小鼠和WT小鼠血浆孵育形成的两种不同蛋白冠进行蛋白组学分析。结果：制备的PEG-PLA纳米粒粒径均一,分散性较好。静脉注射PEG-PLA后,APP/PS1小鼠脑内纳米粒量明显高于WT小鼠。蛋白质组学结果显示,APP/PS1小鼠血浆孵育组PEG-PLA纳米粒表面蛋白冠中凝聚素（Clusterin）明显高于WT小鼠血浆孵育组,该蛋白与纳米粒逃避机体清除有关。此外,纳米粒蛋白冠中血管性血友病因子（Von Willebrand factor）、玻连蛋白（Vitronectin）、肌球蛋白重链-9（Myosin-9）等参与细胞粘附作用相关蛋白在APP/PS1小鼠血浆孵育组也明显多于WT小鼠血浆孵育组。结论：PEG-PLA纳米粒在AD模型小鼠中表现出的高入脑量,可能与AD疾病影响纳米粒蛋白冠组成有关。     

跑台运动改善海马线粒体功能提高APP/PS1小鼠学习记忆能力

为研究跑台运动对APP/PS1小鼠海马线粒体融合、分裂作用的影响,将遗传背景为C57BL/6的3月龄APP/PS1小鼠和野生小鼠各42只分别随机分为APP/PS1安静对照组（ADC,n=21）和运动组（ADE,n=21）,野生安静对照组（WTC,n=21）和运动组（WTE,n=21）。ADE、WTE组进行12周跑台运动,同时ADC、WTC组置于安静跑台环境。水迷宫实验检测小鼠的空间学习记忆能力,RT-PCR法检测线粒体功能关键酶的mRNA水平,Western印迹检测海马融合、分裂及线粒体关键酶的蛋白质表达情况,透射电镜观察海马线粒体融合、分裂状态。结果发现,6月龄APP/PS1小鼠学习记忆能力降低（P<0.05）;海马线粒体融合蛋白质Mfn1、Mfn2、Opa1表达降低（P<0.05）,线粒体分裂蛋白质Drp1、Mff表达增高（P<0.05）;线粒体膜结构模糊,嵴不明显,线粒体碎片增多,空泡化线粒体增多;线粒体呼吸关键酶COX IV及ATP合酶表达均下调（P<0.05）。12周跑台运动可逆转APP/PS1小鼠的上述变化,改善海马线粒体结构和功能,提高学习记忆能力。综上提示：12周跑台运动改善APP/PS1小鼠学习记忆能力的机制可能与其对线粒体结构与功能的改善有关。     

APP/PS1双转基因小鼠的繁育、鉴定及评价

目的：评价APP/PS1双转基因小鼠基因表达及认知行为能力的变化,为AD的相关研究提供有效的动物模型。方法：采用雄、雌鼠1：1合笼配对的方式,令APP/PS1双转基因小鼠自然交配进行繁育。PCR鉴定APP/PS1双转基因鼠仔鼠的基因型后,选择APP/PS1阳性小鼠作为模型（AD）组,同批APP/PS1阴性为对照（CT）组,每组8只小鼠。以Morris水迷宫实验检测仔鼠的空间学习记忆能力,以HE染色、刚果红染色观察仔鼠脑片组织病理学改变。结果：①APP/PS1双转基因鼠仔鼠基因经PCR扩增,出现约360 bp的目的基因条带,表明成功繁育出转入APP/PS1基因的仔鼠;②Morris水迷宫实验结果显示,与7月龄阴性小鼠（CT组）比较,同月龄的双转基因AD组小鼠的空间学习记忆能力明显降低（P<0.05）;③HE染色结果显示,AD组小鼠海马结构及细胞形态出现明显异常;刚果红染色结果显示,AD组小鼠脑片组织出现β淀粉样蛋白斑块沉积。结论：APP/PS1双转基因小鼠较好地模拟了AD的病理变化及行为学特征,可作为研究AD发病机制及开发AD防治药物的实验工具。     

APP/PS1转基因小鼠海马结构UCH-L1的表达及亚甲蓝对其改变的影响

目的探讨亚甲蓝(MB)对APP/PS1转基因小鼠记忆相关蛋白泛素羧基末端水解酶1(carboxyl-terminalhydrolase-L1,UCH-L1)在海马结构的表达及记忆改善的影响。方法 3月龄APP/PS1转基因小鼠及相同品系的野生小鼠分为3组,每组10只:治疗组,APP/PS1小鼠口服亚甲蓝(25mg/kg/d)4个月;模型组,APP/PS1小鼠无药物干预;对照组为正常野生小鼠。待三组小鼠均为7月龄时,跳台实验测试三组小鼠的学习记忆能力;Western blot及免疫荧光技术检测海马结构UCH-L1的含量变化。结果亚甲蓝可以减少小鼠跳台试验错误次数,延长小鼠跳台试验的潜伏期(P<0.01)。亚甲蓝治疗组海马结构的可溶性UCH-L1含量明显增多(P<0.01)。结论亚甲蓝可能是通过上调海马结构可溶性UCH-L1的表达改善APP/PS1小鼠的学习记忆能力。     

氟西汀通过增加阿尔茨海默病APP/PS1转基因小鼠脑内乙酰胆碱的含量改善其空间学习能力

目的探讨胆碱能神经系统是否是抗抑郁药氟西汀(Fluoxetine,FLXT)改善阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)患者大脑空间学习记忆能力的作用靶点。方法随机选取18月龄的雄性APP/PS1双转基因AD小鼠20只分为阳性对照组(APP/PSI组)和FLXT组,分别给予为期4周的腹腔注射生理盐水和FLXT,并随机选取18月龄同窝生野生型(wild type,WT)小鼠10只作为阴性对照组(WT组),该组不给于药物干预。运用Morris水迷宫实验对三组小鼠的空间学习记忆能力进行检测,采用免疫组织化学染色和紫外分光光度法对三组小鼠大脑内β-淀粉样蛋白(amyloidβ-protein,Aβ)沉积情况和乙醜胆碱(acetylcholine,Ach)的含量、乙酰胆碱脂酶(acetylcholinesterase,AchE)及胆碱乙酰化酶(choline acetyl transferase,ChAT)活性等进行检测。结果水迷宫实验显示,APP/PS1小鼠逃避潜伏期显著长于WT小鼠,FLXT处理可明显缩短APP/PS1小鼠逃避潜伏期;免疫组织化学染色显示,WT小鼠脑内未见明显Aβ沉积,而APP/PSI小鼠海马内可见大量Aβ沉积,FLXT处理可明显减少APP/PS1小鼠海马内Aβ沉积;对Ach含量、AchE和ChAT活性检测显示,APP/PS1小鼠大脑皮质及海马内的Ach含量、AchE活性及皮质内的CHAT活性均较WT小鼠降低,FLXT处理可明显抑制APP/PS1小鼠大脑皮质及海马内Ach含量、AchE活性的降低,但对ChAT活性没明显的作用。结论胆碱能系统可能是FLXT作用于AD大脑的作用靶点之一,即FLXT可能通过增加AD大脑胆碱能神经系统的神经功能活性,进而增加Ach的含量,从而改善AD大脑的空间学习记忆能力。     

耐力运动对增龄大鼠脑皮层突触可塑性的影响及相关调控机制*

目的:探讨规律性耐力运动对脑皮层增龄性老化适应性的作用与机制。方法:将三个不同年龄段的健康SPF级雄性Sprague-Dawley大鼠分为3月龄 (青年,n=20)、13月龄 (中年,n=24)和23月龄 (老年,n=24)组,每组又随机分为静息组和运动组;静息组三组静息,运动组三组实施10周递增负荷规律的中等强度耐力运动:运动方式为跑台运动(坡度0),运动强度从最大摄氧量(V·O2max) 60%～65%逐渐递增到70%～75%,运动时间为10周;取大鼠脑皮层,HE染色测试大鼠脑皮层增龄性形态学变化,检测BDNF和SOD的蛋白表达及突触素-1(SYN1)和CaMK IIα/AMPKα1/ mTOR通路等相关基因。结果:静息各组大鼠的脑皮层结构呈现年龄增龄性衰老变化,脑皮层SOD表达呈增龄性下降趋势,BDNF表达变化呈增龄性上升趋势,SYN1和CaMK IIα表达水平随增龄性趋势变化不大,AMPKα1和SirT2以及 IP3R、AKT1、mTOR mRNA表达水平随年龄变化呈现中年略上升而老年下降趋势;与静息各组大鼠相比,运动各组大鼠脑皮层神经细胞核排列紧密有序,显微镜下观察细胞核的数量明显增加,运动促进大鼠脑皮层SOD、BDNF和突触素SYN1表达水平增加,其中老年大鼠SOD、BDNF表达水平显著上调(P＜0.01),青年和老年大鼠SYN1表达水平显著上调(P＜0.05),运动上调中年和老年大鼠脑皮层CaMK IIα表达水平上调(P＜0.01),而对青年大鼠CaMK IIα表达水平却是下调(P＜0.01),运动可上调青年大鼠脑皮层的AMPKα1表达水平(P＜0.05),而对中年和老年大鼠AMPKα1的影响不显著,运动均可上调各年龄大鼠脑皮层的SirT2表达水平(P＜0.05),运动上调各年龄大鼠脑皮层的IP3R/AKT1/ mTOR表达水平,其中青年IP3R显著上调(P＜0.01),青年和中年mTOR显著上调(P＜0.01),老年mTOR也显著上调(P＜0.05)。结论:耐力运动通过上调BDNF的表达水平,调控CaMK IIα信号、激活AMPK信号通路和IP3R/AKT1/mTOR信号通路,改善脑皮层的突触可塑性。     

丁苯酞对脑梗死模型大鼠血清及脑组织突触素及突触后致密物-95表达的影响

摘要 目的：探讨丁苯酞对脑梗死模型大鼠血清及脑组织突触素及突触后致密物（postsynaptic density,PSD）-95表达的影响。方法：将建模成功的大鼠随机平分为三组-丁苯酞组、阿司匹林组与模型组各18只。三组分别给予腹腔注射丁苯酞注射液20 mg/kg+阿司匹林20 mg/kg、阿司匹林20 mg/kg与等体积的生理盐水,1次/d,检测血清及脑组织突触素及PSD-95表达变化情况。结果：（1）治疗第7 d与治疗第14 d后,丁苯酞组和阿司匹林组大鼠改良神经功能评分（Modified neurological severity scores,mNSS）均显著低于模型组（P<0.05）,丁苯酞组低于阿司匹林组（P<0.05）;（2）治疗第7 d与治疗第14 d,丁苯酞组、阿司匹林组大鼠的脑梗死体积百分比均显著低于模型组（P<0.05）,丁苯酞组低于阿司匹林组（P<0.05）;（3）治疗第7 d与治疗第14 d,丁苯酞组、阿司匹林组大鼠血清突触素及PSD-95表达水平均显著高于模型组（P<0.05）,丁苯酞组高于阿司匹林组（P<0.05）;（4）治疗第7 d与治疗第14 d后,丁苯酞组、阿司匹林组大鼠大脑组织突触素及PSD-95蛋白相对表达水平均显著高于模型组（P<0.05）,丁苯酞组高于阿司匹林组（P<0.05）。结论：丁苯酞在脑梗死模型大鼠的应用可促进大鼠血清及脑组织突触素及PSD-95的表达,并减小脑梗死面积,因而有利于大鼠的神经功能的恢复。     

酒精依赖大鼠不同脑区肌动蛋白结合蛋白的表达变化

目的：研究长期酒精暴露对大鼠不同脑区肌动蛋白结合蛋白cofilin表达的影响。方法：雄性SD大鼠24只,随机等分为慢性酒精暴露1月组（E1组）和2月组（E2组）,各饮酒组均设对照组（C1组、C2组）,每组大鼠6只。参照文献制作实验动物模型,给慢性酒精暴露组大鼠自由饮含低浓度乙醇（体积分数为6%）的水溶液,对照组大鼠正常饮自来水。撤除酒精后6 h进行戒断症状评分,并分别处死各组大鼠取脑组织。采用免疫组织化学方法检测各组大鼠前额叶皮质和海马CA1区cofilin蛋白的表达水平。结果：饮酒组大鼠撤除酒精后出现明显的戒断症状。在前额皮质区,E1组大鼠cofilin表达水平较C1组显著升高（P < 0.05）,E2组大鼠cofilin表达水平较C2组显著升高（P < 0.01）;在大鼠海马CA1区,E1组cofilin表达水平较C1组显著升高（P < 0.05）,E2组cofilin表达水平较C2组相比无显著差异（P > 0.05）。结论：长期酒精暴露可导致大鼠前额皮质及海马CA1区肌动蛋白结合蛋白的表达变化。     

浅析BDNF改善痴呆老龄鼠记忆障碍CA1区GrayⅠ型突触结构相关参数的变化

目的探讨BDNF（Brain derived neurotrophic factor）改善痴呆老龄鼠记忆障碍的机制。方法利用Morris迷宫试验观察脑内微量注射BDNF对痴呆小鼠自发活动和记忆巩固过程的影响,应用透射电镜和形态计量学分析痴呆老龄鼠海马GrayⅠ型突触的突出结构参数的变化。结果BDNF使痴呆小鼠在新异环境中的自发活动和探究行为明显增多;并显著延长电击后24 h的步入潜伏期（STL）;BDNF使痴呆老龄鼠海马CA1区GrayⅠ型突触的体积密度、面积密度、比表面和面数密度较治疗前增大,突触平均面积增大;突出界面曲率、突出间隙宽度、突出后致密物质均较治疗前增大,而较正常对照组减小。结论突触结构的变化和突出数量的减少是痴呆发病的病理机制之一;BDNF能够促进突触重建,改善痴呆老龄鼠的学习记忆。     

MicroPET观察姜黄素对APPswe/PS1dE9双转基因小鼠脑葡萄糖代谢的影响

目的利用18氟-脱氧葡萄糖microPET(18F-FDG microPET)影像学技术观察正常对照组小鼠,模型组和姜黄素治疗组APPswe/PS1dE9双转基因小鼠的脑葡萄糖代谢情况。方法随机挑选6月龄正常对照组C57BL/6J小鼠3只,模型组和姜黄素治疗组APPswe/PS1dE9双转基因小鼠各3只,通过2%异氟烷吸入麻醉后,从尾静脉弹丸式注射放射性示踪剂18F-FDG每例约14.8～16.5 MBq,摄取45 min后进行10 min microPET图像采集。计算并比较各组小鼠每克脑组织(除小脑)18F-FDG的摄取率。结果姜黄素治疗组小鼠每克脑组织18F-FDG的摄取率高于正常对照组和模型组。结论姜黄素能明显提高APPswe/PS1dE9双转基因小鼠脑18 F-FDG的摄取及每克脑组织的摄取率,并可能通过影响脑葡萄糖代谢而发挥神经保护作用。     

LiCl attenuates impaired learning and memory of APP/PS1 mice,which in mechanism involves α7 nAChRs and Wnt/β-catenin pathway

We examined the mechanism by which lithium chloride (LiCl) attenuates the impaired learning capability and memory function of dual-transgenic APP/PS1 mice. Six- or 12-month-old APP/PS1 and wild-type (WT) mice were randomized into four groups, namely WT, WT+Li (100 mg LiCl/kg body weight, gavage once daily), APP/PS1 and APP/PS1+Li. Primary rat hippocampal neurons were exposed to β-amyloid peptide oligomers (AβOs), LiCl and/or XAV939 (inhibitor of Wnt/β-catenin) or transfected with small interfering RNA against the β-catenin gene. In the cerebral zone of APP/PS1 mice, the level of Aβ was increased and those of α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR), phosphor-GSK3β (ser9), β-catenin and cyclin D1 (protein and/or mRNA levels) reduced. Two-month treatment with LiCl at ages of 4 or 10 months weakened all of these effects. Similar expression variations were observed for these proteins in primary neurons exposed to AβOs, and these effects were attenuated by LiCl and aggravated by XAV939. Inhibition of β-catenin expression lowered the level of α7 nAChR protein in these cells. LiCl attenuates the impaired learning capability and memory function of APP/PS1 mice via a mechanism that might involve elevation of the level of α7 nAChR as a result of altered Wnt/β-catenin signalling.     

Excitability and synaptic alterations in the cerebellum of APP/PS1 mice

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the severity of cognitive symptoms is better correlated with the levels of soluble amyloid-beta (Aβ) rather than with the deposition of fibrillar Aβ in amyloid plaques. In APP/PS1 mice, a murine model of AD, at 8 months of age the cerebellum is devoid of fibrillar Aβ, but dosage of soluble Aβ(1-42), the form which is more prone to aggregation, showed higher levels in this structure than in the forebrain. Aim of this study was to investigate the alterations of intrinsic membrane properties and of synaptic inputs in Purkinje cells (PCs) of the cerebellum, where only soluble Aβ is present. PCs were recorded by whole-cell patch-clamp in cerebellar slices from wild-type and APP/PS1 mice. In APP/PS1 PCs, evoked action potential discharge showed enhanced frequency adaptation and larger afterhyperpolarizations, indicating a reduction of the intrinsic membrane excitability. In the miniature GABAergic postsynaptic currents, the largest events were absent in APP/PS1 mice and the interspike intervals distribution was shifted to the left, but the mean amplitude and frequency were normal. The ryanodine-sensitive multivescicular release was not altered and the postsynaptic responsiveness to a GABA(A) agonist was intact. Climbing fiber postsynaptic currents were normal but their short-term plasticity was reduced in a time window of 100-800 ms. Parallel fiber postsynaptic currents and their short-term plasticity were normal. These results indicate that, in the cerebellar cortex, chronically elevated levels of soluble Aβ(1-42) are associated with alterations of the intrinsic excitability of PCs and with alterations of the release of GABA from interneurons and of glutamate from climbing fibers, while the release of glutamate from parallel fibers and all postsynaptic mechanisms are preserved. Thus, soluble Aβ(1-42) causes, in PCs, multiple functional alterations, including an impairment of intrinsic membrane properties and synapse-specific deficits, with differential consequences even in different subtypes of glutamatergic synapses.     

Reduced basal and novelty-induced levels of activity-regulated cytoskeleton associated protein (Arc) and c-Fos mRNA in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of APPswe/PS1ΔE9 transgenic mice

Activity-regulated cytoskeletal-associated protein (Arc) and c-Fos are immediate early gene (IEG) products induced by novelty in the hippocampus and involved in the consolidation of synaptic plasticity and long-term memory. We investigated whether induction of arc and c-fos after exposure to a novel open field environment was compromised in different neocortical areas and the hippocampal formation in APP/PS1ΔE9 transgenic mice characterized by pronounced accumulation and deposition of beta amyloid (Aβ). Notably, the basal level of Arc and c-fos mRNA in the neocortex was significantly lower in APP/PS1ΔE9 compared to wild-type mice. Novelty exposure induced an increase in Arc and c-Fos mRNA in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), parietal cortex, and hippocampal formation in both APP/PS1ΔE9 transgenic and wild-type mice. However, novelty-induced IEG expression did not reach the same levels in APP/PS1ΔE9 as in the wild-type mice. In contrast, synaptophysin levels did not differ between mutant and wild type mice, suggesting that the observed effect was not due to a general decrease in the number of presynapses. These data suggest a reduction in basal and novelty-induced neuronal activity in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease, which is most pronounced in cortical regions, indicating that a decreased functional response in IEG expression could be partly responsible for the cognitive deficits observed in patients with Alzheimer’s disease.     

GABA(A) receptor-mediated acceleration of aging-associated memory decline in APP/PS1 mice and its pharmacological treatment by picrotoxin

Advanced age and mutations in the genes encoding amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin (PS1) are two serious risk factors for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Finding common pathogenic changes originating from these risks may lead to a new therapeutic strategy. We observed a decline in memory performance and reduction in hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) in both mature adult (9-15 months) transgenic APP/PS1 mice and old (19-25 months) non-transgenic (nonTg) mice. By contrast, in the presence of bicuculline, a GABA(A) receptor antagonist, LTP in adult APP/PS1 mice and old nonTg mice was larger than that in adult nonTg mice. The increased LTP levels in bicuculline-treated slices suggested that GABA(A) receptor-mediated inhibition in adult APP/PS1 and old nonTg mice was upregulated. Assuming that enhanced inhibition of LTP mediates memory decline in APP/PS1 mice, we rescued memory deficits in adult APP/PS1 mice by treating them with another GABA(A) receptor antagonist, picrotoxin (PTX), at a non-epileptic dose for 10 days. Among the saline vehicle-treated groups, substantially higher levels of synaptic proteins such as GABA(A) receptor alpha1 subunit, PSD95, and NR2B were observed in APP/PS1 mice than in nonTg control mice. This difference was insignificant among PTX-treated groups, suggesting that memory decline in APP/PS1 mice may result from changes in synaptic protein levels through homeostatic mechanisms. Several independent studies reported previously in aged rodents both an increased level of GABA(A) receptor alpha1 subunit and improvement of cognitive functions by long term GABA(A) receptor antagonist treatment. Therefore, reduced LTP linked to enhanced GABA(A) receptor-mediated inhibition may be triggered by aging and may be accelerated by familial AD-linked gene products like Abeta and mutant PS1, leading to cognitive decline that is pharmacologically treatable at least at this stage of disease progression in mice.     

IGF2 Ameliorates Amyloidosis,Increases Cholinergic Marker Expression and Raises BMP9 and Neurotrophin Levels in the Hippocampus of the APPswePS1dE9 Alzheimer’s Disease Model Mice

The development of an effective therapy for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a major challenge to biomedical sciences. Because much of early AD pathophysiology includes hippocampal abnormalities, a viable treatment strategy might be to use trophic factors that support hippocampal integrity and function. IGF2 is an attractive candidate as it acts in the hippocampus to enhance memory consolidation, stimulate adult neurogenesis and upregulate cholinergic marker expression and acetylcholine (ACh) release. We performed a seven-day intracerebroventricular infusion of IGF2 in transgenic APPswe.PS1dE9 AD model mice that express green fluorescent protein in cholinergic neurons (APP.PS1/CHGFP) and in wild type WT/CHGFP littermates at 6 months of age representing early AD-like disease. IGF2 reduced the number of hippocampal Aβ40- and Aβ42-positive amyloid plaques in APP.PS1/CHGFP mice. Moreover, IGF2 increased hippocampal protein levels of the ACh-synthesizing enzyme, choline acetyltransferase in both WT/CHGFP and APP.PS1/CHGFP mice. The latter effect was likely mediated by increased protein expression of the cholinergic differentiating factor, BMP9, observed in IGF2-treated mice as compared to controls. IGF2 also increased the protein levels of hippocampal NGF, BDNF, NT3 and IGF1 and of doublecortin, a marker of neurogenesis. These data show that IGF2 administration is effective in reversing and preventing several pathophysiologic processes associated with AD and suggest that IGF2 may constitute a therapeutic target for AD.