Reactions of green lizards (Lacerta viridis) to major repellent compounds secreted by Graphosoma lineatum (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae)

The chemical defence of Heteroptera is primarily based on repellent secretions which signal the potential toxicity of the bug to its predators. We tested the aversive reactions of green lizards (Lacerta viridis) towards the major compounds of the defensive secretion of Graphosoma lineatum, specifically: (i) a mixture of three aldehydes: (E)-hex-2-enal, (E)-oct-2-enal, (E)-dec-2-enal; (ii) a mixture of these three aldehydes and tridecane; (iii) oxoaldehyde: (E)-4-oxohex-2-enal; (iv) secretion extracted from metathoracic scent glands of G. lineatum adults and (v) hexane as a non-polar solvent. All chemicals were presented on a palatable food (Tenebrio molitor larvae). The aversive reactions of the green lizards towards the mealworms were evaluated by observing the approach latencies, attack latencies and approach–attack intervals. The green lizards exhibited a strong aversive reaction to the mixture of three aldehydes. Tridecane reduced the aversive reaction to the aldehyde mixture. Oxoaldehyde caused the weakest, but still significant, aversive reaction. The secretion from whole metathoracic scent glands also clearly had an aversive effect on the green lizards. Moreover, when a living specimen of G. lineatum or Pyrrhocoris apterus (another aposematic red-and-black prey) was presented to the green lizards before the trials with the aldehyde mixture, the aversive effect of the mixture was enhanced. In conclusion, the mixture of three aldehydes had the strong aversive effect and could signal the potential toxicity of G. lineatum to the green lizards.     

Genetic variation in field and laboratory populations of the spined soldier bug,Podisus maculiventris

The predatory spined soldier bug, Podisus maculiventris (Say) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae), is an economically important and highly valued biological control agent. There is substantial information on the biology, ecology, behavior, and rearing of this stink bug. However, virtually nothing is known of its genetic variation, in natural or domesticated populations. To address this lacuna, we used amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) to assess the genetic variability of field and laboratory populations. Four AFLP universal primer combinations yielded a total of 209 usable loci. The AFLP results showed greater genetic variability between populations from Missouri and Mississippi (both USA), and relatively low variability within Missouri populations. We infer little genetic isolation among Missouri field populations and within laboratory populations, but a significant genetic isolation between Missouri and Mississippi populations.     

Attractiveness of conspecific stink bugs to adult stink bug-baited traps in soybean fields

The attractiveness of live adult stink bugs used as baits in traps in soybean fields, Milyang, Korea, to conspecific stink bugs was evaluated. Both sexes of bean bug, Riptortus pedestris Fabricius (Hemiptera: Alididae), and one-banded stink bug, Piezodorus hybneri Gmelin (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), were attracted to conspecific male adults-baited traps. Likewise, both sexes of brown-marmorated stink bug, Halyomorpha halys Stål (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), and sole bug, Dolycoris baccarum L. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), were attracted to traps baited with conspecific male stink bugs. However, in Nezara antennata Scott (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), both male and female used as baits in traps were attractive to conspecific adults. Accordingly, these results suggest that the only male adults of H. halys and D. baccarum and both sexes of N. antennata are attractive to conspecific male stink bugs.     

Prevalence,damage, management and insecticide resistance of stink bug populations (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in commodity crops

1. Pest management of stink bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], corn (Zea mays L.) and cotton (Gossypium spp.) agroecosystems has become a major concern in several countries of the Americas.
2. In this review, we report an overview on geographical distribution, injury, damage and methods used to control (plant resistance mechanisms, biological control) the most important stink bugs in the Americas, with an emphasis on Brazil, the implications of the trend towards decreased susceptibility of stink bug populations to insecticides and the current difficulties of the management of these insect pests.
3. Currently, the Neotropical brown stink bug Euschistus heros (Fabricius) is less susceptible to organophosphate insecticides than in the past. A slight reduction in E. heros susceptibility to pyrethroids and, to a lesser extent, to neonicotinoids has also been observed. In addition, the green‐belly stink bug [Dichelops melacanthus (Dallas)] is more tolerant to the three classes of insecticides (neonicotinoids, organophosphates and pyrethroids) than E. heros.
4. Metabolic detoxification is involved in organophosphate, neonicotinoid and pyrethroid differences in susceptibility. Restricted availability of insecticides with different modes of action could favour the selection of resistant phenotypes in stink bug populations.

     

Biological control of soybean stink bugs by inoculative releases of Trissolcus basalis

Field studies of inoculative releases of Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) in early-maturing soybean, used as a trap crop, were conducted during four consecutive seasons to evaluate the parasitoid's potential as an IPM tactic for use against stink bug (Pentatomidae) species. Fifteen thousand adults of the parasitoid were released per hectare in the trap crop when the first stink bugs were detected in the experimental area. The stink bug population density was reduced by an average of 54% in the trap crop and by 58% in the main crop. The inoculative releases produced a reduction and delay in the stink bug population peak, mainly represented by Nezara viridula (L.), Piezodorus guildinii (Westwood) and Euschistus heros (Fabr.), which were held below economic threshold levels during the most critical stages of stink bug attack on soybean (pod and seed fill, R3–R6). As a result, seed quality was better in areas where T. basalis was released, demonstrating the efficacy of inoculative releases of this egg-parasitoid which could be an important component of the soybean IPM program in Brazil.     

Multiple host use by the egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) in a soybean agricultural system: biological control and environmental implications

1 Species of bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae and other families) that are parasitized by the egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) in the soybean agricultural system on the Darling Downs in south-eastern Queensland, Australia, are reported. The degree to which eggs of each bug species are used by T. basalis is quantified, which allows assessment of the role of these alternative host species in the biological control of the green vegetable bug Nezara viridula (L.). 2 Egg masses of nine species of pentatomid bugs and one unidentified bug species were collected. Parasitism rates of egg masses of all species averaged 50–70% but were significantly lower for the more important pest species, including the green vegetable bug, than for some of the agriculturally less important species. 3 Trissolcus basalis emerged from nearly all species collected and was the major parasitoid to emerge from most species. A number of native species were parasitized heavily by T. basalis and parasitism of such species may enhance biological control of the green vegetable bug, but may also pose environmental concerns. Parasitism of predatory bugs by T. basalis may have a negative impact on the biological control of other pests, especially lepidopterous pests. 4 Although the impact of T. basalis on native and predatory host species was not directly quantified, these host species remain abundant and therefore do not appear to be affected adversely by such high rates of parasitism.     

Field collection of egg parasitoids of Pentatomidae and Scutelleridae in Northwest Italy and their efficacy in parasitizing Halyomorpha halys under laboratory conditions

The invasion of Halyomorpha halys (Stål) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) has caused severe economic damage in crops in North America and Europe, motivating research to identify its natural enemies, both in native and invaded areas. In its Asian native range, the main natural enemies are egg parasitoids, among which the most effective are Trissolcus japonicus (Ashmead) and Trissolcus mitsukurii (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) in China and Japan, respectively. In Europe, biology, host range, and impact of most native scelionid species are not well‐known. The present study aimed to investigate (1) presence and abundance of scelionid species that parasitize native Pentatomidae and Scutelleridae eggs in Northwest Italy, and (2) their ability to develop on H. halys eggs. During 4‐year field surveys, egg masses were collected and reared until bug nymph or adult parasitoid emergence. Then, the obtained scelionid females were tested for their ability to parasitize H. halys eggs in laboratory no‐choice experiments. Egg masses of all collected bug species were parasitized, and Telenomus spp. (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae), Trissolcus belenus (Walker), and Anastatus bifasciatus (Geoffroy) (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae) were the most common parasitoids. In the laboratory, Trissolcus kozlovi Rjachovskij was the only species to significantly produce offspring from fresh H. halys eggs, whereas all tested Trissolcus species significantly induced host egg abortion (non‐reproductive effects). This study provides knowledge of the parasitoid species associated with native bugs, and represents a starting point to investigate the intricate interactions between native and exotic parasitoids recently found in northern Italy. These egg parasitoids could potentially be effective biocontrol agents of H. halys.     

Influence of brown stink bug feeding,planting date and sampling time on common smut infection of maize

Phytopathogen infections are frequently influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors in a crop field. The effect of brown stink bug, Euschistus servus (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), feeding and planting date and sampling time on common smut (Ustilago maydis) infection percentage of maize plants was examined in 2005 and 2006, and 2010 and 2011, respectively. Brown stink bug adult feeding on maize hybrid “DKC6971” at flowering in 2005 and 2006 did not influence smut infection percentage when examined using 3 treatments (i.e., 0 adult, 5 adults, and 5 adults mixed with the smut spores). The smut infection percentages were <3% (n = 12) in the 3 treatments. The smut infection percentage among the 4 weekly samplings was the same, so was natural aflatoxin contamination at harvest among the treatments. The 2nd experiment showed that planting date did not affect the smut infection percentage in either 2010 or 2011. But, the smut infection percentage from the postflowering sampling was greater than preflowering sampling in both years. The smut infection percentage varied among the germplasm lines in 2010, but not in 2011. This study demonstrated that brown stink bug feeding at flowering had no effect on smut infection in maize, and the best time for smut evaluation would be after flowering. The temperature and precipitation might have also influenced the percentage of smut‐infected maize plants during the 4 years when the experiments were conducted. The similarity between kernel‐colonizing U. maydis and Aspergillus flavus infections and genotype × environment interaction were also discussed.     

Colonization preference of Euschistus servus and Nezara viridula in transgenic cotton varieties,peanut, and soybean

Producers of Bt cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L. (Malvaceae), in the southeastern USA face significant losses from highly polyphagous stink bug species. These problems may be exacerbated by crop rotation practices that often result in cotton, peanut, Arachis hypogaea L., and soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill (both Fabaceae), growing in close proximity to one another. Because all of these crops are hosts for the major pest stink bug species in the region, we experimentally examined colonization preference of these species among the crops to clarify this aspect of their population dynamics. We planted peanut, soybean, Bt cotton, and glyphosate‐tolerant (RR) non‐Bt cotton at three sites over 3 years in replicated plots ranging from 192 to 1 323 m² and calculated odds ratios for colonization of each crop for Nezara viridula (L.) and Euschistus servus (Say) (both Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). In four of five experiments, both E. servus and N. viridula preferred soybean significantly more often than Bt cotton, non‐Bt cotton, and peanut. Neither N. viridula nor E. servus showed any preference between non‐Bt and Bt cotton in any experiment. Both species had higher numbers in Bt and non‐Bt cotton relative to peanut; this was not significant for any single experiment, but analyses across all experiments indicated that N. viridula preferred Bt and non‐Bt cotton significantly more often than peanut. Our results suggest that soybean in the landscape may function as a sink for stink bug populations relative to nearby peanut and cotton when the soybean is in the reproductive stage of development. Stink bug preference for soybean may reduce pest pressure in near‐by crops, but population increases in soybean could lead to this crop functioning as a source for later‐season pest pressure in cotton.     

Seasonal occurrence and diapause induction of a predatory bug Andrallus spinidens (F.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae)

The bug Andrallus spinidens (F.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) is a polyphagous predator of insect larvae, which is distributed in tropical and warm temperate zones worldwide. Seasonal occurrence and diapause induction of this bug were studied in a population in Miyazaki, southern Kyushu, Japan. The field research showed that A. spinidens produces three or four generations a year and is most abundant from mid‐summer to autumn. Reproductive activity of field‐collected adults decreased from late summer to autumn, indicating that this bug enters adult diapause in autumn. Only adults were found in early spring and these were reproductive. Laboratory experiments showed that, irrespective of photoperiod, adult diapause is induced at lower temperatures (≤22.5°C), whereas it is avoided at higher temperatures (≥25°C). Ambient temperature falls across the critical range from late summer to autumn. Thus, the bug clearly overwinters in adult diapause induced by low temperatures and this diapause is terminated during the course of winter.     

Localization of the photoreceptor for photoperiodism in the stink bug, Plautia crossota stali

The brown-winged green bug Plautia crossota stali Scott (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) shows a long-day photoperiodic response with respect to the control of adult diapause. The location of the photoreceptor for this response was examined by surgical removal of putative photoreceptor organs. Even after both ocelli were removed, the insects responded normally to the photoperiod. After bilateral removal of the compound eyes, the insects developed reproductive organs and the volume of the corpus allatum increased regardless of photoperiod. Therefore, the compound eyes play a major role in the reception of photic information for photoperiodism in P. c. stali. However, because removal of the bilateral compound eyes did not completely prevent the response to photoperiod, photoreceptors other than the compound eyes can also receive photic information for photoperiodism.     

First predation record of Canthecona furcellata (Wolff.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on spinning stage silkworm Antheraea mylitta (Drury)

A new scientific survey elucidates the preferred attack of stink bug Canthecona furcellata (Wolff.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on the spinning stage of the tropical tasar silkworm, Antheraea mylitta (Drury) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). The silkworm A. mylitta produces an excellent quality of wild silk; however, due to predation by C. furcellata, tasar silk production is reduced. The bug C. furcellata is the most invasive larval predator of A. mylitta and predation is high during early instars as well as the molting stage of the larvae. However, for the first time it is reported that the spinning stage is also preferable for attack by the stink bug. Both the nymphs and adults of C. furcellata attack the spinning silkworm; moreover, stink bug attack is observed in groups under field conditions. It is postulated that feeding preference is due to the concealed, non‐movable and less defensive stage of the tasar larvae during spinning. The predation of C. furcellata includes its approach on target larva of the tasar silkworm during spinning, where it inserts the proboscis inside the larval skin through the moist silk network of newly forming or formed cocoon. Most of the spinning larvae die from the attack and the normal seed cocoon fails to form. The mechano‐ and chemoreceptors, present on the antenna and proboscis of C. furcellata, play an important role in prey locating and the feeding mechanism. The life cycle of C. furcellata is also discussed in the present study.     

Behavioral responses in prey location of the predatory stink bug, Eocanthecona furcellata, to chemical cues in the larvae of Spodoptera litura

Behavioral responses of the predatory stink bug Eocanthecona furcellata (Wolff) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) towards Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae were observed in olfactometers. In single-and dual-tube olfactometers, adult bugs were observed to approach and stretch their proboscis toward the odor source. These types of behavior were also observed toward the control odor source in the dual-tube olfactometer. However, the frequency of these phases toward the control odor was significantly lower than that toward the odors from intact or dead larvae. The solvent extracts of larvae elicited these similar behavioral phases significantly more frequently and for significantly longer duration than the control. In a linear track olfactometer, E. furcellata nymphs were observed to be attracted to the fraction eluted with hexane from silica gel chromatography but proboscis-protruding behavior was not observed. The other fraction, 15%-ether-in-hexane from silica gel chromatography, elicited the proboscis-protruding behavior by a simple behavioral assay using a Pasteur pipette. These findings therefore indicate the presence of at least two different chemical cues in prey location.     

Influence of Host Pheromone on Egg Parasitism by Scelionid Wasps: Comparison of Phoretic and Nonphoretic Parasitoids

The kairomonal activity of the attractant pheromone for the spined soldier bug, Podisus maculiventris (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), was investigated by exposing fresh pentatomid egg masses in field traps with or without synthetic pheromone. Predominantly two parasitoids were recovered from exposed eggs of P. maculiventris and Euschistus obscurus: Telenomus podisi Ashmead (a generalist pentatomid egg parasitoid) and Telenomus calvus Johnson (a phoretic specialist on Podisus eggs) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae). The incidences of T. podisi from P. maculiventris and E. obscurus eggs placed in pheromone-baited and nonbaited traps were not significantly different, suggesting that this oophagous wasp does not use the spined soldier bug attractant pheromone as a kairomone. However, T. calvus was reared almost exclusively from egg masses of P. maculiventris placed inside pheromone-baited traps. These results suggest that T. calvus females orient to volatile chemicals emitted by spined soldier bug males as a searching strategy to find areas likely to contain host eggs, in addition to the previously discovered strategy of using the pheromone to guide their phoretic behavior. The data also indicate that T. calvus can distinguish between the egg masses of these pentatomid hosts at close range.     

Synthesis of (E)-9-(1-pyrenyl)-4-hydroxynon-2-enal, a fluorescent probe of the (E)-4-hydroxynon-2-enal with retained biological properties

(E)-9-(1-pyrenyl)-4-hydroxynon-2-enal (FHNE), a fluorescent probe of (E)-4-hydroxynon-2-enal (HNE) is synthesised in seven steps and in 35% overall yield, starting from commercially available 1-pyrencarboxyaldehyde. When incubated with cultured HeLa cells this fluorescent probe penetrates cells and particularly concentrates in the region surrounding the nucleus. As the parent compound, HNE it is able to induce the activation of heat shock factor (HSF) and it is able to induce the binding of HSF to heat shock element (HSE).     

Impacts of biological control and invasive species on a non-target native Hawaiian insect

The potential for classical biological control to cause unintended harm to native species was evaluated in the case of the endemic Hawaiian koa bug, Coleotichus blackburniae White (Hemiptera: Scutelleridae), and parasitoids introduced to Hawaii for control of an agricultural pest, the southern green stink bug, Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Parasitism of C. blackburniae eggs, nymphs and adults by biocontrol agents was quantified across a wide range of habitats and compared to other sources of mortality. Egg mortality due to the biocontrol agent Trissolcus basalis Wollaston (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) was low (maximum 26%) and confined to elevations below 500 m on a single host plant. Predation, mainly by alien spiders and ants, was the greatest source of egg mortality (maximum 87%). Parasitism of adult C. blackburniae by the biocontrol agent Trichopoda pilipes (F.) (Diptera: Tachinidae) was near zero at 21 of 24 sites surveyed. Three sites with high bug density had higher levels of T. pilipes parasitism, reaching maxima of 70% among adult female bugs, 100% among males and 50% among fifth instars. Male-biased parasitism indicated that T. pilipes is adapted to using male aggregation pheromone for finding C. blackburniae hosts. The relative impacts of biocontrol agents and other sources of mortality were compared using life tables. Invasive species, particularly generalist egg predators, had the greatest impacts on C. blackburniae populations. Effects of intentionally introduced parasitoids were relatively minor, although the tachinid T. pilipes showed potential for large impacts at individual sites. In retrospect, non-target attacks by biological control agents on C. blackburniae were predictable, but the environmental range and magnitude of impacts would have been difficult to foresee.     

红火蚁蚁巢嗜蚁土蝽虫体成分及其化学防御成分鉴定

红火蚁Solenopsis invicta Buren对入侵其蚁巢的其他昆虫具有强烈的攻击性,然而时常发现嗜蚁土蝽Macroscytus sp. 成虫在红火蚁蚁巢内活动。为了明确嗜蚁土蝽成功“寄生”红火蚁蚁巢的化学机制,本研究利用GC-MS技术分析嗜蚁土蝽的表皮挥发性成分,并选取tridecane等4种主要成分对红火蚁工蚁进行触杀和熏蒸毒力测定。结果表明嗜蚁土蝽虫体挥发物共有10种化合物,包括3种醛类、3种酯类、3种正构烷烃和1种醇类,其中tridecane和(E)-2-decenyl acetate是主要成分,其相对含量为54.12%和19.32%。土蝽挥发性成分中(E)-2-decenal和(E)-2-decenyl acetate对红火蚁工蚁具有较强的触杀毒力,仅(E)-2-decenal对红火蚁表现出一定的熏蒸效果。本研究证实了嗜蚁土蝽虫体挥发性成分对红火蚁具有较强的化学防御能力,可能是其能成功寄生在红火蚁巢内的原因之一。     

Gymnosoma rotundatum (Diptera: Tachinidae) attracted to the aggregation pheromone of Plautia stali (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

The brown-winged green stink bug, Plautia stali Scott (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), is an important fruit-piercing bug. A monitoring study on the seasonal density change of P. stali using traps baited with methyl (E,E,Z)-2,4,6-decatrienoate, the aggregation pheromone of the P. stali, resulted in the first capture of adult tachinid flies, Gymnosoma rotundatum (Diptera: Tachinidae), in Korea. The parasitoid fly may worth studying as a biological control agent in the management of P. stali.