Phylogenetic relationships among bumble bees (Bombus, latreille) inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome b and cytochrome oxidase I sequences

We conducted a molecular study intending to derive an estimate of the relationships within the genus Bombus (bumble bees) by comparing the mitochondrial cytochrome b and cytochrome oxidase I (COI) genes from 19 species, spanning 10 of approximately 16 European subgenera and 3 subgenera from North and South America. Our trees differ from the most recent classifications of bumble bees. Although bootstrap values for deep branches are low, our sequences show significant data structure and low homoplasy, and all trees share some groups and patterns. In all cases, the subgenus Bombus s. str. clusters among the most derived bumble bees, contrary to other molecular studies. In all trees, B. funebris is the sister taxon of B. robustus, and in five of the six trees, B. wurflenii is the sister taxon to this clade. B. nevadensis is basal to the other species in the analysis of the cytochrome b gene, but appears to be among the most derived according to the analysis of the COI region. The species representing the subgenera Thoracobombus and Fervidobombus are consistently among the earliest diverged. Species that appear in very different positions in different trees are B. nevadensis, B. mesomelas, B. balteatus, and B. hyperboreus. All subgenera with two representatives in our analysis are apparently monophyletic except Fervidobombus, Melanobombus, and Pyrobombus. The groups formed by pocket makers and non-pocket makers within Bombus also appear to be paraphyletic, and therefore some subgenera may not accurately reflect phylogeny.     

A phylogenetic analysis of woodpeckers and their allies using 12S, Cyt b, and COI nucleotide sequences (class Aves; order Piciformes)

Although the woodpeckers have long been recognized as a natural, monophyletic taxon, morphological analyses of their intra- and intergeneric relationships have produced conflicting results. To clarify this issue, and as part of a larger study of piciform relationships, nucleotide sequences for the 12S ribosomal RNA (12S; 1123 bp), cytochrome b (Cyt b; 1022 bp), and cytochrome oxidase c subunit 1 (COI; 1512 bp) mitochondrial genes were obtained from 34 piciform species that included 16 of the 23 currently recognized woodpecker genera (subfamily Picinae), three piculets (subfamily Picumninae), a wryneck (subfamily Jynginae), a honeyguide (family Indicatoridae), and three barbets (infraorder Ramphastides). Analyses were conducted on the individual and combined 12S, Cyt b, and COI sequences with maximum parsimony, neighbor-joining, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian algorithms. Based on the strong, congruent support among the different data partitions and models of sequence evolution, a highly resolved consensus of the relationships among woodpeckers and their allies could be formed. The monophyly of Indicatoridae + Picidae (infraorder Picides), Picidae, Picinae + Picumninae, and Picinae was strongly supported in all analyses. However, the tribes Colaptini, Picini, Campephilini, and Campetherini were shown to be paraphyletic as were the genera of Colaptes and Piculus. A revision of the tribal-level classification of woodpeckers is proposed and the importance of plumage convergence among woodpeckers is discussed.     

Phylogenetics of Darwiniothamnus (Asteraceae: Astereae) – molecular evidence for multiple origins in the endemic flora of the Galápagos Islands

Aim The aims of this study were (1) to investigate whether the two growth forms of Darwiniothamnus Harling (Asteraceae) originated from the colonization of a single ancestor, (2) to identify the closest relative(s) of Darwiniothamnus, and (3) to review molecular phylogenies from other plant groups to infer the origin of Galápagos endemics. Location Darwiniothamnus is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. Methods All putative relatives of Darwiniothamnus plus 38 additional species were included. Nucleotide sequences of the internal transcribed spacers of the nuclear ribosomal DNA were used for Bayesian and parsimony analyses. Results Darwiniothamnus is polyphyletic. Two species (D. lancifolius (Hook. f.) Harling and D. tenuifolius (Hook. f.) Harling) are woody shrubs that usually grow to 1–2 m in height; they belong to a clade composed of species otherwise restricted to the Caribbean. These two species are sister to Erigeron bellidiastroides Griseb., a herbaceous species endemic to Cuba. The third species (D. alternifolius Lawesson & Adsersen) is a perennial herbaceous plant, woody at the base and reaching only up to 50 cm in height. It is sister to two Chilean (Coquimbo–Valparaiso region) species that also have a perennial herbaceous habit: E. fasciculatus Colla and E. luxurians (Skottsb.) Solbrig. They are placed in an assemblage restricted to South America. The review of previous molecular phylogenetic studies revealed that two of the endemic genera and endemic species of three non‐endemic genera have their closest relatives in South America. Endemic species belonging to three non‐endemic genera have sister species in North America or the West Indies. One endemic genus and endemic species in three non‐endemic genera have sister taxa with a widespread continental distribution, or their molecular phylogenies yielded equivocal results. Main conclusions The flora of Galápagos has affinities with both North America (including the Antilles) and South America. Darwiniothamnus exhibits both patterns: two species of this genus are sister to a taxon endemic to Cuba, supporting a connection between the Cocos plate and the West Indies; the third species, D. alternifolius, provides a link with the Coquimbo–Valparaiso region, suggesting a biogeographical connection between the Nazca plate and southern South America.     

Phylogeography of the ground squirrel subgenus Xerospermophilus and assembly of the Mojave Desert biota

Aim The Mohave ground squirrel (Xerospermophilus mohavensis) is one of a few endemic species of the Mojave Desert of south‐western North America. We describe phylogeographic patterns within this species and its sister taxon (Xerospermophilus tereticaudus) and test hypotheses concerning their biogeographical history using genetic signatures of stable versus expanding populations. We compare these patterns with those of other Mojave species to evaluate the role of vicariance in producing phylogeographic structure during the assembly of the Mojave Desert biota. Location The Mojave Desert and adjacent desert regions of south‐western North America. Methods Complete cytochrome b gene sequences of X. mohavensis (46 individuals representing 11 localities) and X. tereticaudus (38 individuals representing 14 localities) were analysed using Bayesian methods to infer phylogenetic relationships. Genetic signals of stable or expanding populations were examined based on the distribution of recent mutations and pairwise differences, as well as with a coalescent‐based approach. Results The two species are reciprocally monophyletic and may have diverged in response to the late Pliocene–early Pleistocene uplift of the Transverse Ranges and Mojave block. Little phylogeographic structure is evident within X. mohavensis, but there is a signature of northern expansion from a presumably full‐pluvial refugium in the Mojave River basin. Four geographic subgroups are evident within X. tereticaudus, and there is a signature of northern expansion from a presumably full‐pluvial refugium in the Sonoran coastal plains. Roughly congruent phylogeographic patterns are found within five arid‐adapted taxa, indicating a strong element of vicariance during the assembly of the generally transitional Mojave Desert biota. Main conclusions We present a preliminary model for the historical assembly of the Mojave Desert biota that indicates a strong vicariant element producing autochthonous lineages (including X. mohavensis) that diverged during the major geological and climatic events of the last 5 Myr. Phylogeographic partitioning within the Mojave Desert underscores the necessity of immediate conservation measures for this unique and fragile arid ecosystem that is locked between two large metropolitan population centres and is the target of continued adverse environmental impact.     

Phylogenetic relationships of Hemidactylus geckos from the Gulf of Guinea islands: patterns of natural colonizations and anthropogenic introductions estimated from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences

Mitochondrial DNA (12S rRNA, 16S rRNA, and cytochrome b) sequences and nuclear sequences (C-mos and alpha-Enolase) were analyzed within all known Hemidactylus species from all three volcanic islands in the Gulf of Guinea that have never been connected to the continent. These comprise both endemic and widespread species. Our aim was to determine if the widespread species was introduced anthropogenically, to determine the number of distinct genetic lineages within the islands, and to determine if the endemic forms constituted a monophyletic group. Our results suggest that a previously undescribed species on S?o Tomé is the sister taxon to Hemidactylus newtoni, endemic to Annobon. Genetic variation between populations of Hemidactylus greefii from S?o Tomé and Principe is very high based on mtDNA sequences, but the forms cannot be distinguished using the nuclear DNA sequences. Hemidactylus mabouia appears to have been anthropogenically introduced to all three islands. The island endemics do not form a monophyletic group, suggesting multiple independent colonizations of the islands.     

Molecular phylogeny and historical biogeography of the Holarctic wetland leaf beetle of the genus Plateumaris

Leaf beetles of the genus Plateumaris inhabit wetlands across the temperate zone of the Holarctic region. To explore the phylogeographic relationships among North American, East Asian, and European members of this genus and the origin of the species endemic to Japan, we studied the molecular phylogeny of 20 of the 27 species in this genus using partial sequences of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) and the 16S and nuclear 28S rRNA genes. The molecular phylogeny revealed that three species endemic to Europe are monophyletic and sister to the remaining 11 North American and six Asian species. Within the latter clade, North American and Asian species did not show reciprocal monophyly. Dispersal-vicariance analysis and divergence time estimation revealed that the European and North America-Asian lineages diverged during the Eocene. Moreover, subsequent differentiation occurred repeatedly between North American and Asian species, which was facilitated by three dispersal events from North America to Asia and one in the opposite direction during the late Eocene through the late Miocene. Two Japanese endemics originated from different divergence events; one differentiated from the mainland lineage after differentiation from the North American lineage, whereas the other showed a deep coalescence from the North American lineage with no present-day sister species on the East Asian mainland. This study of extant insects provides molecular phylogenetic evidence for ancient vicariance between Europe and East Asia-North America, and for more recent (but pre-Pleistocene) faunal exchanges between East Asia and North America.     

The phylogenetic relationships of Berthelot's Pipit Anthus berthelotii illustrated by DNA sequence data, with remarks on the genetic distance between Rock and Water Pipits Anthus spinoletta

The phylogenetic relationships of Berthelot's Pipit Anthus berthelotii , which is endemic to three groups of North Atlantic islands, have puzzled ornithologists for more than a century. A total of 1041 base pair cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA sequences from Berthelot's Pipit are compared with homologous sequences from the Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris , Richard's Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae , the Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis , the Red-breasted Pipit Anthus cervinus , the Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis , Rock and Water Pipits Anthus spinoletta and the White Wagtail Motacilla alba. In the resulting phytogeny, the sister taxon of Berthelot's Pipit is unambiguously the Tawny Pipit, with Richard's Pipit forming a deeper branch on the same clade. Sequences of a Danish Rock Pipit and a Swiss Water Pipit support a close relationship between these two species, but more comprehensive studies of intra- and interpopulation variation are required before considering their taxonomic ranking. Some preliminary inferences are made regarding phylogenetic tendencies in the genus Anthus.     

Molecular phylogenetic relationships of two extinct potoroid marsupials, Potorous platyops and Caloprymnus campestris (Potoroinae: Marsupialia)

Complete 12S rRNA and partial cytochrome b (cytb) gene sequences have been obtained from museum samples of two recently extinct potoroids-Potorous platyops and Caloprymnus campestris. Phylogenetic analyses based on these mitochondrial DNA sequences suggest that the broad-faced potoroo (P. platyops) was a close relative of the recently discovered Potorous longipes and the recently re-discovered Potorous gilberti. Although the extinct desert rat-kangaroo (C. campestris) was clearly resolved as a member of the subfamily Potoroinae, its precise relationships vis a vis other living potoroines are unclear. We confirmed that the rufous rat-kangaroo (Aepyprymnus rufescens) is sister to all living Bettongia species, but the molecular data provide no support for a sister relationship between A. rufescens and C. campestris as suggested by on the basis of four shared morphological characters. Molecular dating analyses suggest that the initial radiation of potoroinae seems to have occurred soon after its origin in the early Miocene. Within Potoroinae, C. campestris diverged from other taxa approximately 16 million years ago. P. platyops diverged from P. longipes+P. gilberti approximately 14-15 million years ago.     

A molecular phylogeny for the South African limbless lizard taxa of the subfamily Acontinae (Sauria: Scincidae) with special emphasis on relationships within Acontias

In the present study, relationships among three genera Acontias, Acontophiops, and Typhlosaurus, that comprise the South African limbless lizard subfamily Acontinae, were assessed with partial sequences of the 16S rRNA mitochondrial DNA gene. In addition, relationships within Acontias were further investigated using sequence data from the cytochrome oxidase I gene (COI). Maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony analyses of the 16S rRNA mtDNA data revealed that within this subfamily, Typhlosaurus is basal while Acontophiops and Acontias are sister taxa. Based on the 16S rRNA mtDNA data, the relationships within Acontias placed A. meleagris orientalis as the sister taxon of A. percivali tasmani, with A. m. orientalis lineacauda morph and A. m. meleagrus being the sister taxa to this group. The small-bodied skinks A. lineatus lineatus and A. l. tristis formed a monophyletic group, with the medium-bodied species A. gracilicauda gracilicauda being their sister taxon. Analyses of the COI gene for Acontias place A. m. orientalis as the sister taxon of A. p. tasmani with both A. meleagris meleagris and A. m. orientalis lineacauda being distinct. In contrast to the 16S rRNA mtDNA data, the COI data placed A. g. gracilicauda as the sister taxon to these medium-bodied species; while the subspecies status of the small-bodied taxa A. l. lineatus and A. l. tristis is reaffirmed. Combined analysis of both gene fragments for Acontias taxa recovered the same clades as found using only COI data. Systematic affinities in Acontias are discussed. These results indicate that Acontias is more species rich than previously thought.     

The status of the Japanese and East Asian bats of the genus Myotis (Vespertilionidae) based on mitochondrial sequences

The genus Myotis includes the largest number of species in the family Vespertilionidae (Chiroptera), and its members are distributed throughout most of the world. To re-evaluate the phylogenetic position of East Asian Myotis species with respect to Myotis species worldwide, we analyzed mitochondrial gene sequences of NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 and cytochrome b from 24 East Asian individuals as well as 42 vespertilionid bats determined previously. The results suggest that: (1) some individuals having the same species name in Europe and Japan do not form a monophyletic clade, indicating that some bat species exhibit morphological convergence, (2) Japanese Myotis mystacinus forms a sister relationship with Myotis brandtii (Palaearctic), and both species are included in the American clade implying that an ancestor of these species originated in North America, and (3) the Black whiskered bat, Myotis pruinosus, is endemic to Japan and forms sister relationships with Myotis yanbarensis and Myotis montivagus collected from Okinawa (Japan) and Selangor (Malaysia), respectively, implying that M. pruinosus originated from the south. The systematics of Japanese and East Asian Myotis bats were revisited by considering their phylogenetic relationships. Our study provides the first extensive phylogenetic hypothesis of the genus Myotis that includes East Asian and Japanese species.     

Phylogenetic position of Platanista gangetica: insights from the mitochondrial cytochrome b and nuclear interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein gene sequences

The evolutionary relationship of peculiar and poorly known Ganges River dolphin with extinct and extant cetaceans has been in the state of confusion for more than a century. The close resemblance of platanistidae with some of the extinct taxon viz., Dalpiaziniidae and Waipatiidae and their sister group relationship with many of the extant lineages of cetaceans has been reported but none of the alternative hypotheses provide an unambiguous placement for this species. The present study provides insights into the molecular relationships of Platanista with other cetaceans based on comprehensive analyses of the mitochondrial cytochrome b and nuclear interphotoreceptor retinoid-binding protein gene sequences, obtained from 15 specimens of Ganges dolphin from India and Bangladesh. The mean substitution distance analysis of phylogenetically informative characters in the cytochrome b sequences suggested that Platanista gangetica is significantly closer (P<0.001) to Mysticeti than to any other group of toothed whales. However, the conventional methods of phylogenetic reconstruction supported this finding with low to moderate (41-69%) bootstrap values.     

Phylogeny of the endemic Baikalian Sergentia (Chironomidae,Diptera)

Fragments of two mitochondrial genes, cytochrome b (CytB) and Cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) have been used as phylogenetic markers in Sergentia (Chironomidae, Diptera). The concatenated (1241 bp) sequences from both genes were used to infer the phylogenetic relationships among seven Sergentia species. Five of the species belong to the endemic fauna of Lake Baikal. Alignments of the nucleotide sequences were used for the construction of trees using Neighbor-Joining and maximum parsimony methods. Both methods yielded similar results. Monophyly of both Sergentia and the Baikalian endemic species was well supported. The date of origin of the endemic group of Sergentia was estimated as 25.7 MYA which closely coincides with the start of geological changes in the Baikal area. A cytological tree, based on 12 chromosomal characteristics, for the same set of Sergentia species showed a great similarity to the molecular phylogeny.     

The phylogenetic relationships among non-diplomystid catfishes as inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences; the search for the ictalurid sister taxon (Otophysi: Siluriformes)

The relationships among families of catfishes are poorly understood and have yet to be the subject of a comprehensive investigation with molecular data. Existing phylogenetic hypotheses are based on morphological data and incompletely resolved. This study analyzed complete sequences of mitochondrial gene cytochrome b for 170 species from 29 of 33 extant families, and focused on the relationships of Ictaluridae to other catfishes. In addition to previous phylogenetic studies, the fossil record, paleogeography, biogeography, and distribution of extant catfish families collectively suggest the location (if extant) of the ictalurid sister taxon to be Northern or Eastern Asia. Of the extant catfishes currently native to this area and included in this analysis, parsimony and Bayesian likelihood analyses recovered Cranoglanis bouderius as the most proximal sister taxon of Ictaluridae. Seemingly, ictalurids and cranoglanidids represent another biogeographic component linking freshwater fishes of North America and eastern Asia, e.g., catostomids and paddlefishes. The results coupled with present-day catfish distributions and inferences from the fossil record collectively suggest the ancestor of Ictaluridae to have invaded freshwaters of North America at the close of the Cretaceous through northeastern Asia and northwestern North America. Other superfamilial nodes supported the results of previous phylogenetic studies of narrower taxonomic scope. Several novel relationships were recovered (including a clade composed of Pimelodidae, Pseudopimelodidae, and Heptapteridae) and these along with sources of systematic error are discussed. A broad sampling of Bagridae permitted an examination of intergeneric relationships within this family and in light of recent morphological and molecular studies.     

Molecular phylogenetic relationships of pangasiid and schilbid catfishes in Thailand

In this study, the phylogenetic relationships among 13 pangasiids and six schilbids of Thailand were reconstructed based on the almost complete mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b), 12S rRNA, tRNA-Val and 16S rRNA, as well as the partial nuclear recombination-activating gene 1 (rag1) sequences by using the maximum likelihood and the Bayesian inference methods of phylogenetic reconstruction. The reconstructed phylogeny based on the concatenated sequence data set recovered Pangasiidae and Schilbidae as reciprocally monophyletic groups. Within Pangasiidae, four major clades were recovered, which according to the cyt b genetic distances can be categorized into four genera: Pangasius, Pseudolais, Helicophagus and Pangasianodon. The genus Pangasianodon was strongly supported as the most basal taxon within pangasiids, whereas Pseudolais + Helicophagus were recovered as a sister group of Pangasius. Within the latter, the giant pangasius Pangasius sanitwongsei was recovered as a sister group of the spot pangasius Pangasius larnaudii, Pangasius krempfi as a sister group of Pangasius nasutus + Pangasius conchophilus and Pangasius polyuranodon as a sister species of Pangasius macronema. Other internal phylogenetic relationships, however, were unresolved. Within Schilbidae, Pseudeutropius was supported as the most basal lineage. Eutropiichthys was recovered as a sister group of Clupisoma. The enigmatic Clupisoma sinense was recognized as more closely related to Laides longibarbis than to Clupisoma prateri. Thus, based on the cyt b genetic distances, a recategorization of C. sinense to the genus Laides is suggested. On the basis of a relaxed clock fossil calibration, the divergence of pangasiids and schilbids was estimated to have occurred 14·93 million years before present (b.p.) during the Miocene epoch. The separation between Pangasiidae and Schilbidae took place c. 13·12 Mb.p. during the early middle Miocene. The estimated divergence time of pangasiids is similar to the age of the calibrated fossil, Cetopangasius chaetobranchus, which was discovered in north-central Thailand. This suggests that the oldest pangasiid ancestor diverged into diverse genera in the area.     

Mid-Pleistocene divergence of Cuban and North American ivory-billed woodpeckers

We used ancient DNA analysis of seven museum specimens of the endangered North American ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) and three specimens of the species from Cuba to document their degree of differentiation and their relationships to other Campephilus woodpeckers. Analysis of these mtDNA sequences reveals that the Cuban and North American ivory bills, along with the imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis) of Mexico, are a monophyletic group and are roughly equidistant genetically, suggesting each lineage may be a separate species. Application of both internal and external rate calibrations indicates that the three lineages split more than one million years ago, in the Mid-Pleistocene. We thus can exclude the hypothesis that Native Americans introduced North American ivory-billed woodpeckers to Cuba. Our sequences of all three woodpeckers also provide an important DNA barcoding resource for identification of non-invasive samples or remains of these critically endangered and charismatic woodpeckers.     

Recent origin,active speciation and dispersal for the lichen genus Nephroma (Peltigerales) in Macaronesia

Aim We reconstructed the phylogeny of the lichen genus Nephroma (Peltigerales) to assess the relationships of species endemic to Macaronesia. We estimated dates of divergences to test the hypothesis that the species arose in Macaronesia (neo‐endemism) versus the oceanic archipelagos serving as refugia for formerly widespread taxa (palaeo‐endemism). Location Cosmopolitan with a special focus on the archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands. Methods DNA sequences were obtained from 18 species for three loci and analysed using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian inferences. Divergence dates were estimated for the internal transcribed spacer (ITS)‐based phylogeny using a relaxed molecular clock. Reconstruction of the ancestral geographical range was conducted using the Bayesian 50% majority rule consensus tree under a parsimony method. Results The backbone phylogenetic tree was fully supported, with Nephroma plumbeum as sister to all other species. Four strongly supported clades were detected: the Nephroma helveticum, the N. bellum, the N. laevigatum and the N. parile clades. The latter two share a common ancestor and each includes a widespread Holarctic species (N. laevigatum and N. parile, respectively) and all species endemic to Macaronesia. The data suggest a neo‐endemic origin of Macaronesian taxa, a recent range expansion from Macaronesia of both widespread species, a range expansion limited to the Mediteranean Basin and south‐western Europe for another taxon, and a long dispersal event that resulted in a speciation event in the western parts of North America. Main conclusions The Macaronesian endemic species belong to two sister clades and originated from a most recent common ancestor (MRCA) shared with one widely distributed taxon, either N. parile or N. laevigatum. Estimates of the mean divergence dates suggest that the endemics originated in the archipelagos after the rise of the volcanic islands, along with the ancestor to the now widespread species, which probably expanded their range beyond Macaronesia via long‐distance dispersal. This study provides the first phylogenetic evidence of Macaronesian neo‐endemism in lichenized fungi and provides support for the hypothesis that oceanic islands may serve as a source for the colonization of continents. However, further data are needed to properly assess the alternative hypothesis, namely colonization from western North America.     

On the origin of Darwin's finches

Darwin's finches comprise a group of 15 species endemic to the Galápagos (14 species) and Cocos (1 species) Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The group is monophyletic and originated from an ancestral species that reached the Galápagos Archipelago from Central or South America. Descendants of this ancestor on the Archipelago then colonized Cocos Island. In the present study, we used sequences of two mitochondrial (mt) DNA segments (922 bp of the cytochrome b gene and 1,082 bp of the control region), as well as two nuclear markers (830 bp of numt2, consisting of 140 bp of mtDNA control region and 690 bp of flanking nuclear DNA; and 740 bp of numt3, consisting of 420 bp of mt cytochrome b sequence flanked by 320 bp of nuclear DNA) to identify the species group most closely related to the Darwin's finches. To this end, we analyzed the sequences of 28 species representing the main groups (tribes) of the family Fringillidae, as well as 2 outgroup species and 13 species of Darwin's finches. In addition, we used mtDNA cytochrome b sequences of some 180 additional Fringillidae species from the database for phylogeny reconstruction by maximum-parsimony, maximum-likelihood, minimum-evolution, and neighbor-joining methods. The study identifies the grassquit genus Tiaris, and specifically the species Tiaris obscura, as the nearest living relative of Darwin's finches among the species surveyed. Darwin's finches diverged from the Tiaris group shortly after the various extant species of Tiaris diverged from one another. The initial adaptive radiation of the Tiaris group apparently occurred on the Caribbean islands and then spread to Central and South America, from where the ancestors of Darwin's finches departed for the Galápagos Islands approximately 2.3 MYA, at the time of the dramatic climatic changes associated with the closure of the Panamanian isthmus and the onset of Pleistocene glaciation.     

Evolution of green lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae): a molecular supermatrix approach

We present a time‐calibrated phylogeny of the charismatic green lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae). Previous phylogenetic studies on the family using DNA sequences have suffered from sparse taxon sampling and/or limited amounts of data. Here we combine all available previously published DNA sequence data and add to it new DNA sequences generated for this study. We analysed these data in a supermatrix using Bayesian and maximum likelihood methods and provide a phylogenetic hypothesis for the family that recovers strong support for the monophyly of all subfamilies and resolves relationships among a large proportion of chrysopine genera. Chrysopinae tribes Leucochrysini and Belonopterygini were recovered as monophyletic sister clades, while the species‐rich tribe Chrysopini was rendered paraphyletic by Ankylopterygini. Relationships among the subfamilies were resolved, although with relatively low statistical support, and the topology varied based on the method of analysis. Greatest support was found for Apochrysinae as sister to Nothochrysinae and Chrysopinae, which is in contrast to traditional concepts that place Nothochrysinae as sister to the rest of the family. Divergence estimates suggest that the stem groups to the various subfamilies diverged during the Triassic‐Jurassic, and that stem groups of the chrysopine tribes diverged during the Cretaceous.     

Phylogenetic relationships of Cyrillaceae and Clethraceae (Ericales) with special emphasis on the genus Purdiaea Planch

The phylogenetic relationships and systematic position of the three genera of Cyrillaceae (Ericales), Cyrilla, Cliftonia, and Purdiaea, were investigated by jackknife analysis of a combination of DNA sequences from the plastid genes atpB, ndhF, and rbcL. The results show that Cyrilla and Cliftonia together are the sister group of Ericaceae, whereas Purdiaea groups with Clethra of Clethraceae. Together, Clethra and Purdiaea form the sister group of (Cyrilla+Cliftonia)+Ericaceae. It is concluded that Purdiaea should be moved to Clethraceae. A cladistic analysis based on morphological data was performed to investigate relationships among the species of Purdiaea. The results indicate that Purdiaea belizensis from Central America is sister to all other species of the genus, and that Purdiaea nutans from northern South America is sister to the remaining group of species which are all Cuban endemics, among which P. cubensis from Pinar del Rio in western Cuba is sister to the eight species occurring in the Oriente province in eastern Cuba.     

Molecular phylogenetics and biogeography of the Neotropical redstarts (Myioborus; Aves, Parulinae)

Montane areas in the Neotropics are characterized by high diversity and endemism of birds and other groups. The avian genus Myioborus (Parulinae) is a group of insectivorous warblers, characteristic of cloud forests, that represents one of the few Parulinae genera (New World warblers) that has radiated substantially in South America. The genus is distributed throughout most montane regions from the southwestern United States to northern Argentina. Here, I use mitochondrial sequences from the cytochrome b, ND2, and ND3 genes to present the first hypothesis of phylogenetic relationship among all Myioborus species level taxa. Phylogenetic reconstructions based on maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods produced similar results and suggest a northern origin for the genus Myioborus with subsequent colonization of the Neotropical Montane Region. The lower-montane species, M. miniatus, is the sister taxon to a clade in which all taxa occupy upper-montane habitats. These "highland" taxa diverged early in the history of the genus and produced two well-defined monophyletic lineages, a Central-northern Andean clade formed by M. albifrons, M. ornatus, and M. melanocephalus, and a Pantepui (table-mountains of southern Venezuela, northern Brazil, and western Guyana) clade consisting of M. castaneocapillus, M. albifacies, and M. cardonai, and probably M. pariae. M. brunniceps, M. flavivertex, and M. torquatus were included in this upper-montane clade but without clear relationships to other taxa. Lack of resolution of nodes defining the upper-montane species clade is likely to result from a period of rapid diversification mediated by geological and climatic events during the Late Pliocene. These results suggest that an interplay of dispersal and vicariance has shaped the current biogeographic patterns of Myioborus.