Breeding and management of the common trumpeter (Psophia crepitans)

The breeding biology and management of three wild-caught adult Common trumpeters (one male and two females) was documented at the Woodland Park Zoological Gardens, Seattle, from April, 1984 to August, 1986. A total of 27 eggs were laid, and eight young survived to fledging. Both sexes exhibited crane-like dances during courtship, but the male appeared to perform these behaviors more frequently and with greater intensity than the females. Courtship feeding and allo-preening also occurred. Nests consisted of simple scrapes on the ground, but the birds had no opportunity to rest in trees or other elevated sites. Clutches contained two or three eggs, and the incubation period was aproximately 28 days. Although the breeding pair was generally aggressive toward the second female, all three adults participated in incubation and in caring for the young. Parental behavior consisted of brooding, allopreening, and feeding. The male preened and fed one chick significantly more often than either of the females. Trumpeter chicks were highly precocial, but grew relatively slowly, reaching 50% of adult weight by 45 to 50 days of age. Trumpeters are difficult to maintain and breed in captivity and appear to be susceptible to mycotic diseases, such as aspergillosis. Changes in the social composition of captive groups may result in improved breeding.     

Agonistic and grooming behavior of captive crowned lemurs (Lemur coronatus) during the breeding season

Captive breeding of rare and endangered prosimians may be enhanced by an increased understanding of all aspects of their seasonal mating behavior. In this study, the agonistic and grooming behaior of captiveL. coronatus were studied during their annual breeding season. Between October and March, selected aspects of agonistic and grooming behavior of four male-female groups were recorded. Males initiated significantly more allogrooming than females. The frequency of this behavior pattern increased significantly in the weeks of estrus. Females performed significantly more agonistic behavior patterns than males. The mean frequency of agonistic interactions decreased significantly during the breeding season. In successfully reproducing groups males showed much less agonism towards females, than they did in unsuccessful groups. Inter-specific comparisons demonstrated that the patterns of agonistic interactions during the breeding season are very different among closely related species of lemurids. The conclusions drawn from this study are that captive breeding of crowned lemurs may be enhanced by keeping permanent multi-male, multi-female groups.     

Introducing an innovative semi‐captive environment for the Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta)

In response to demands for research, captive breeding, and tourism, a semi‐captive environment was created for the Philippine tarsiers (Tarsius syrichta) in Corella, Bohol, Philippines. The 7600‐m² enclosure was continuous with the surrounding habitat, and utilized a unique predator control fence design and a lighting system to attract nocturnal insects. During 2 years of observation, the locations of over 500 tarsier sleeping sites were recorded. Tarsiers were found to prefer dense, low‐level vegetation in secondary forests, with perching sites averaging 2 m above the ground. Up to 10 tarsiers were observed within the enclosure at one time, which is a high density compared to densities based on home‐range estimates for wild tarsiers in the vicinity of the study site. In addition, the tarsiers were observed to be more social than previously reported. Zoo Biol 24:101–109, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

First captive breeding of the imperial parrot (Amazona imperialis)

We describe the rearing and development of the first imperial parrot (Amazona imperialis) hatched and raised in captivity. A single egg was hen-incubated for 28 days, and the chick was parent-fed for ～14 days, after which it was removed for hand-rearing. Similar to wild, parent-reared imperial nestlings, the chick developed fully within 12 weeks, weaning at 540 g body weight. Endangered and endemic to Dominica, the imperial is a vital flagship for oceanic rainforest conservation. Chronicling the neonatal development of A. imperialis helps illuminate the natural history of this enigmatic species, whose secretive nesting habits and low population density have frustrated a detailed understanding of its ecology and reproduction.     

Optimal conditions for breeding of captive humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti): A survey of British zoos

We surveyed 16 British zoos and bird gardens to assess the optimal conditions for breeding of captive Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). We obtained information on population, enclosure, and husbandry characteristics and related these variables to three measures of per capita breeding success, namely, per capita egg productivity, chick productivity, and hatching success (measured as the proportion of eggs laid that hatched). All three fitness measures increased with an increasing number of breeding pairs and total population size but were not related to population density. Once the effect of number of breeding pairs was removed statistically, chick productivity was found to be highest when nesting boxes were lined with sand and gravel instead of alternative substrata such as twigs or vegetation. Hatching success increased with increasing pool size and was highest in enclosures with concrete floors. Adult mortality in zoos was generally low and appeared related to the use of chlorine in freshwater pools and to the presence of other penguin species in Humboldt penguin displays. Several enclosure and husbandry parameters were not variable enough to assess their impact on reproduction of captive Humboldt penguins. Recommendations for optimising conditions for captive breeding of Humboldt penguins include keeping as large a population as possible in a concrete enclosure with a large pool area, while providing sand and gravel as nesting material. Bird density may be important but we did not detect detrimental effects on breeding for densities up to 0.25 birds m^–2. Adult mortality can be minimised by exhibiting Humboldt penguins in single‐species display and avoiding chlorination of pool water. An experimental approach is recommended to confirm the results of this correlational study. Zoo Biol 20:545–555, 2001. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Reproductive behavior of the captive Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822)

Understanding reproductive behavior is important for the conservation of endangered species, but research on the reproductive behavior of Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822) is still very scarce. In this study, we used focal animal sampling and all-occurrence recording by an infrared monitor to observe the behaviors of two Sunda pangolins during a 5-day breeding period at the Pangolin Research Base for Artificial Rescue and Conservation Breeding of South China Normal University (PRB-SCNU). The behavioral characteristics and breeding strategies were analyzed, and the results were discussed together with information on other captive Sunda pangolin pairs at PRB-SCNU. The results found that there was no obvious estrus behavior in the captive female, while the male could exhibit sexual excitement and courtship behavior after a brief introduction period. Repeated copulation continued over many days after the female accepted the courtship. The average duration of copulatory behavior was 248.9 ± 148.7 s (n = 25), and all copulation occurred between 20:00 and 08:00 hr in the natural day–night photoperiod. The mating position of Sunda pangolins was lateral–ventral and was classified as the ninth or eleventh pattern under both Dewsbury's and Dixson's classification systems. This study can provide scientific guidance for the captive breeding and management of Sunda pangolins and other pangolin species, which is of great significance for ex situ conservation tactics.     

Development of husbandry practices for the captive breeding of key largo woodrats (Neotoma floridana smalli)

The Key Largo woodrat is an endangered rodent endemic to the island of Key Largo in the Florida Keys. After several reports documented a steep decline in the population, the US Fish and Wildlife Service developed a recovery plan, including captive breeding and reintroduction. Captive breeding efforts were to be focused on providing animals for future reintroduction to protected areas on Key Largo. However, little was known about the husbandry needs or reproductive behavior of this elusive nocturnal species. In 2005, Disney's Animal Kingdom^® received 11 animals and began to systematically investigate methods of breeding Key Largo woodrats. Since the program's inception, 30 pups have been born and successfully parent reared. In this report, we describe some of the husbandry techniques that have contributed to the success of the Key Largo woodrat captive breeding program at Disney's Animal Kingdom^®. The results obtained may be of use to other facilities maintaining woodrats and other rodent species. Zoo Biol 30:318–327, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Successful captive breeding of Mitchell's water monitor,Varanus mitchelli (Mertens 1958), at Perth Zoo

Mitchell's water monitors (Varanus mitchelli) have been maintained on display at Perth Zoo since 1997. They are generally a timid species but have been maintained and bred in a mixed species water feature exhibit. In this article we describe their captive management and behavior with an insight into their reproductive biology. Between 2002 and 2005, 11 clutches were laid ranging from 13 to 27 (X? = 20) eggs from one female. Egg size ranged between 3.00 and 6.08 g (X? = 4.77 g) in weight, 22.8 and 31.9 mm (X? = 28.3 mm) in length, and 11.1 and 19.3 mm (X? = 17.1 mm) in width. Oviposition included double and triple clutches ranging between 41 and 60 days apart (X? = 48 days), events n = 6. Four clutches were incubated at three different temperatures and hatchlings emerged after 157–289 days. The weight of the hatchlings ranged between 2.60 and 4.52 g (X? = 4.34 g). Total length ranged between 140.1 and 178.0 mm (X? = 165.9 mm) and snout–vent length ranged from 53.8 to 70.0 (X? = 64.4 mm). Juvenile growth and development information is presented from hatching through to approximately 3 years of age. Zoo Biol 29:615–625, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Group composition and reproductive success of cooperatively breeding white‐winged choughs (Corcorax melanorhamphos) in urban and non‐urban habitat

Abstract: White‐winged choughs (Corcorax melanorhamphos, Corcoracidae) are a common, breeding resident in and around the city of Canberra in the Australian Capital Territory. We compared five measures of reproductive success between the urban and non‐urban populations of choughs to investigate the effect of urbanization on this cooperatively breeding species. Urban choughs initiated breeding earlier than their non‐urban counterparts and were more likely to suffer nest failures. However, there was no difference in the number of successful nests in a season or the number of fledglings produced per successful nesting attempt. A greater proportion of fledglings survived their first 12 months in the non‐urban habitat. We suggest that increased rates of nest predation and fledgling mortality in the urban environment may have a negative effect on reproductive success and remove any advantage that might be gained through a longer breeding season. Possible effects of urbanization on the social and genetic structure of white‐winged choughs are also discussed.     

Reproductive ecology of Brown-cheeked Laughing Thrushes (Garrulax henrici) in Tibet

ABSTRACT.   Most species in the genus Garrulax are found in subtropical or tropical areas of southeastern Asia, with few species adapted to temperate or high-altitude climates. We examined the behavior and reproductive ecology of Brown-cheeked Laughing Thrushes ( G. henrici ) from 1999 to 2005 at Xiongse Valley, Tibet. Cup-shaped nests located 0.4–2.6 m above ground were found in 13 different species of plants, with roses and barberries the most common nest substrates. Laughing thrushes were socially monogamous and no territorial behaviors were observed. Egg-laying was initiated in early May and ended by late August, with clutch sizes of either 2 or 3 eggs     . Incubation started with the first egg being laid and the incubation period lasted 13–17 d     . Young fledged at 14–16 d posthatching     . Of 38 nesting attempts with known fates, at least one nestling hatched in 32 nests (84%) and at least one young fledged from 21 nests (55%). The mean number of fledglings per successful nest was 2.2 (range 1–3; N = 21 nests). Compared to lowland congeners, Brown-cheeked Laughing Thrushes produced smaller clutches and larger eggs. Such differences suggest that laughing thrushes may invest more energy in fewer offspring at higher altitudes, as reported for other avian species and populations, and this may represent an adaptive response to high-altitude environments where climates are harsh and food availability may be limiting.     

Captive breeding for reintroduction: influence of management practices and biological factors on survival of captive kaki (black stilt)

An important component of the restoration strategy for the critically endangered kaki or black stilt (Himantopus novaezelandiae) is captive breeding for release. Since 1981 1,879 eggs were collected from wild and captive pairs, with birds laying up to four clutches. Eggs were incubated artificially and most chicks reared by hand until released as juveniles (about 60 days) or sub‐adults (9–10 months). Because survival in captivity is a significant determinant of the number of birds available for release, we wished to identify sources of variation in mortality to assess potential impacts of management on productivity. Hatchability was 78% for captive‐laid eggs and 91% for wild‐laid eggs. Survival of hatched eggs was 82% by 10 months of age for both wild and captive birds. Most egg mortality occurred early in incubation and around hatching: the timing of mortality was unaffected by whether birds were captive or wild, hybrid or pure kaki, or when eggs were laid. Heavier hatchlings showed higher initial survival, as did chicks from wild parents. Hatchlings from fourth‐laid eggs showed lowest survival, even though hatchling mass tended to increase with hatch order. Survival of chicks subjected to major health interventions was 69% after 4 months. No differences in survival were found between different genders, hybrids and pure kaki, hand‐reared or parent‐reared birds, chicks hatching early or late in the season, different seasons, different‐sized groups of chicks, chicks reared in different brooders, juveniles kept in different aviaries, and chicks from subsequent clutches. Birds subjected to minor health interventions were equally likely to survive as healthy chicks (82%). Survival was high despite aggressive management (quadruple clutching and collecting late in the season). Differences between captive and wild birds suggest further improvements could be made to captive diet. Wide variation in hatchability between parent pairs substantiates the practice of breaking up poorly performing pairs. Zoo Biol 0:1–16, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Successful breeding attempt of a pair of Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) in a conservation center in Bilar,Bohol, Philippines and recommendations for tarsier husbandry

The Philippine tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) belongs to the least known nocturnal primates. Tarsiers and remaining biodiversity of the Philippines are under tremendous threats from increasing human expansion, with habitat loss and illegal pet trade being the main reasons for tarsier population decline. In addition, even though the attempts were made by western and local facilities, tarsiers have not survived well in captivity. In this paper, I present an example of successful breeding of the Philippine tarsier in captive conditions but in natural climate. As the most important elements of success, I see a large amount of space provided to tarsiers, the climate similar to their natural habitat and the food resembling their natural diet. Our pair of tarsiers were joined during the mating period and held separately outside the mating period, which corresponds with their behavior in the wild and may have played a crucial role in breeding success. Eliminating stress to animals is also important. The study can provide valuable guidelines for other facilities keeping tarsiers in the Philippines and help to improve tarsiers’ welfare and in the future help to establish a viable captive population of the Philippine tarsier that will serve as a backup population and also will decrease demand on tarsiers captured from the wild.     

Body size development of captive and free‐ranging Leopard tortoises (Geochelone pardalis)

The growth and weight development of Leopard tortoise hatchings (Geochelone pardalis) kept at the Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation (AWWP), Qatar, was observed for more than four years, and compared to data in literature for free‐ranging animals on body weight or carapace measurements. The results document a distinctively faster growth in the captive animals. Indications for the same phenomenon in other tortoise species (Galapagos giant tortoises, G. nigra; Spur‐thighed tortoises, Testudo graeca; Desert tortoises, Gopherus agassizi) were found in the literature. The cause of the high growth rate most likely is the constant provision with highly digestible food of low fiber content. Increased growth rates are suspected to have negative consequences such as obesity, high mortality, gastrointestinal illnesses, renal diseases, “pyramiding,” fibrous osteodystrophy or metabolic bone disease. The apparently widespread occurrence of high growth rates in intensively managed tortoises underlines how easily ectothermic animals can be oversupplemented with nutrients. Zoo Biol 29:517–525, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Trends in the captive breeding of threatened and endangered birds in British zoos, 1988–1997

The aim of this study was to assess trends in captive breeding of threatened and endangered bird species in British zoos. The measures we recorded were: 1) the total number of species held, 2) the percentage of species held that are listed in the IUCN Red List, 3) the percentage of endangered species breeding, and 4) the number of species in managed breeding programs. These data were gathered from the bird inventories of 10 representative British zoos for the years 1988 and 1997. The data for measures 1–3 were compared between the 2 years using a Wilcoxon matched‐pairs test. We found that the zoos maintained the same number of species (W=10.5; n=10; P=0.093; median=87.5 and 78 for 1988 and 1997, respectively). However, there was a significant increase in the number of birds held that fit each of the IUCN's conservation categories (Endangered: W=43.0; n=10; P<0.05, median=1.48 and 6.64 for 1988 and 1997, respectively; Vulnerable: W=53.0; n=10; P<0.05, median=3.33 and 10.05 for 1988 and 1997, respectively; and Rare: W=55.0; n=10; P<0.01, median=0.00 and 8.33 for 1988 and 1997, respectively). Overall, the percentage of threatened species kept in zoos increased from a median of 4.81 in 1988 to 25.02 in 1997. During this period there was an increase in the number of species in each category of the IUCN Red List. No difference was found in the number of threatened species breeding between 1988 and 1997. Zoo Biol 23:85–89, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

姜科、闭鞘姜科植物繁育系统与传粉生物学的研究进展

综述了姜科Zingiberaceae植物繁育系统和传粉生物学方面的研究及其进展。姜科有50余属1500多种,是一个泛热带分布的、动物传粉的单子叶植物大科。姜科植物中存在着雌花两性花异株、雄花两性花同株、花柱卷曲性、雄性先熟、自交不亲和等多种性表达方式和花部机制。姜科植物重要的传粉动物包括各种蜂类、天蛾、蝴蝶、鸟类等,不同的传粉动物对应不同的花部特征。在相对有限的研究中,姜科植物展现出了一些独特的传粉和繁育机制,在豆蔻属Amomum、山姜属Alpinia等植物中发现的花柱卷曲性被认为是植物界中一种独特的促进异交的行为机制,在对黄花大苞姜Caulokaempferia coenobialis的研究中发现了植物界中一种全新的花粉滑动自花传粉机制,这些新的研究和发现丰富了我们对姜科植物传粉和繁育系统多样性的认识。本文提出了今后姜科植物繁殖生物学研究的建议:对更多未知姜科植物类群的传粉和繁育系统进行研究;从系统发育的角度开展姜科不同类群植物的传粉和繁育系统的演化研究;对花柱卷曲性这一独特的性多态现象开展全面深入的研究。