Permeable Boundaries: Outsiders and Access to Fishing Grounds in the Berau Marine Protected Area

The designation of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Indonesia has been accelerated over the past two decades in line with international biodiversity conservation commitments and to secure a basis for decentralised fisheries resources management. The Berau MPA of northeast Kalimantan is one of them. This paper shows how the establishment of the park boundaries and zoning affects local fishers' livelihoods. Particular attention is paid to the position of outsider fishers or andon, who have a legal right to access the resource rich fishing grounds. Decentralised district government legitimises outsider fisheries activities because andon fishing permits bring in fees as a contribution to the regional income (PAD or pendapatan asli daerah), while international environmental organisations and local fishers regard the outsider fishers as illegitimately entering the MPA to access resources they regard as their own. Thus, MPA boundaries appear to be highly permeable, with both local fishers and environmental NGOs seeing the presence of andon as illegitimate and illicit, despite being legal.     

No Reef Is an Island: Integrating Coral Reef Connectivity Data into the Design of Regional-Scale Marine Protected Area Networks

We integrated coral reef connectivity data for the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico into a conservation decision-making framework for designing a regional scale marine protected area (MPA) network that provides insight into ecological and political contexts. We used an ocean circulation model and regional coral reef data to simulate eight spawning events from 2008–2011, applying a maximum 30-day pelagic larval duration and 20% mortality rate. Coral larval dispersal patterns were analyzed between coral reefs across jurisdictional marine zones to identify spatial relationships between larval sources and destinations within countries and territories across the region. We applied our results in Marxan, a conservation planning software tool, to identify a regional coral reef MPA network design that meets conservation goals, minimizes underlying threats, and maintains coral reef connectivity. Our results suggest that approximately 77% of coral reefs identified as having a high regional connectivity value are not included in the existing MPA network. This research is unique because we quantify and report coral larval connectivity data by marine ecoregions and Exclusive Economic Zones (EZZ) and use this information to identify gaps in the current Caribbean-wide MPA network by integrating asymmetric connectivity information in Marxan to design a regional MPA network that includes important reef network connections. The identification of important reef connectivity metrics guides the selection of priority conservation areas and supports resilience at the whole system level into the future.     

Movements,Home Range and Site Fidelity of Snapper (Chrysophrys auratus) within a Temperate Marine Protected Area

Understanding the movement dynamics of marine fish provides valuable information that can assist with species management, particularly regarding protection within marine protected areas (MPAs). We performed an acoustic tagging study implemented within the Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park on the mid-north coast of New South Wales, Australia, to assess the movement patterns, home range and diel activity of snapper (Chrysophrys auratus; Sparidae); a species of significant recreational and commercial fishing importance in Australia. The study focused on C. auratus movements around Cabbage Tree Island, which is predominantly a no-take sanctuary zone (no fishing), with an array of acoustic stations deployed around the island and adjacent reefs and islands. Thirty C. auratus were tagged with internal acoustic tags in November 2010 with their movements recorded until September 2014. Both adult and juvenile C. auratus were observed to display strong site fidelity to Cabbage Tree Island with a mean 12-month residency index of 0.83 (range = 0 low to 1 high). Only three fish were detected on acoustic receivers away from Cabbage Tree Island, with one fish moving a considerable distance of ~ 290 kms over a short time frame (46 days). The longest period of residency recorded at the island was for three fish occurring regularly at the site for a period of 1249 days. Chrysophrys auratus displayed strong diurnal behaviour and detection frequency was significantly higher during the day than at night; however, there was no significant difference in detection frequency between different hours. This study demonstrates that even small-scale protected areas can benefit C. auratus during multiple life-history stages as it maintains a small home range and displays strong site fidelity over a period of 3 years.     

Recovery Trends of Commercial Fish: The Case of an Underperforming Mediterranean Marine Protected Area

Temporal trends in the recovery of exploited species in marine protected areas (MPAs) are useful for a proper assessment of the efficacy of protection measures. The effects of protection on the fish assemblages of the sublittoral rocky reefs in the “Penisola del Sinis-Isola di Mal di Ventre” MPA (W. Sardinia, Italy) were evaluated using a multi-year series of data. Four surveys, conducted 7, 10, 13 and 15 years after the area was designated as an MPA and carried out in the period spanning June and July, were used to estimate the abundance and biomass of commercial species. The surveys were carried out in zones with decreasing levels of fishing restrictions within the MPA (zones A, B, C) and in unprotected zones (OUT1 and OUT2), and underwater video visual census techniques were used. Protected zones only occasionally showed higher levels of abundance or biomass, and the trajectories of those metrics were not consistent across the years. In addition, the zone with the highest level of protection (zone A) never presented levels of abundance and biomass higher than those in zones B and C. This study shows that even 15 years after designation, protection has had no appreciable effect in the MPA studied. It is argued that this is emblematic of several shortcomings in the planning, regulation and enforcement frameworks of the MPA.     

Benthic Invertebrates Associated with a Serpulid Polychaete Assemblage in a Temperate Estuary

Hydroides dianthus (Verrill), a serpulid polychaete which secretes calcareous tubes, provides microhabitats for a variety of benthic invertebrates in Delaware Bay. These microhabitats function as biologically generated refuges and physical heterogeneities for at least 54 species. Dominance was measured by the biological index value which yielded 12 taxa that comprised 90% by number of the serpulid assemblage. These taxa included seven polychaetes, two amphipods, Nematoda, Oligochaeta, and Harpacticoida. In addition to the refuges provided by the serpulids, it was concluded that this temperate serpulid assemblage was comparable in function but not scale to calcareous biogenic assemblages in lower latitudes.     

Weak Compliance Undermines the Success of No-Take Zones in a Large Government-Controlled Marine Protected Area

The effectiveness of marine protected areas depends largely on whether people comply with the rules. We quantified temporal changes in benthic composition, reef fish biomass, and fishing effort among marine park zones (including no-take areas) to assess levels of compliance following the 2005 rezoning of the government-controlled Karimunjawa National Park (KNP), Indonesia. Four years after the rezoning awareness of fishing regulations was high amongst local fishers, ranging from 79.5±7.9 (SE) % for spatial restrictions to 97.7±1.2% for bans on the use of poisons. Despite this high awareness and strong compliance with gear restrictions, compliance with spatial restrictions was weak. In the four years following the rezoning reef fish biomass declined across all zones within KNP, with >50% reduction within the no-take Core and Protection Zones. These declines were primarily driven by decreases in the biomass of groups targeted by local fishers; planktivores, herbivores, piscivores, and invertivores. These declines in fish biomass were not driven by changes in habitat quality; coral cover increased in all zones, possibly as a result of a shift in fishing gears from those which can damage reefs (i.e., nets) to those which cause little direct damage (i.e., handlines and spears). Direct observations of fishing activities in 2009 revealed there was limited variation in fishing effort between zones in which fishing was allowed or prohibited. The apparent willingness of the KNP communities to comply with gear restrictions, but not spatial restrictions is difficult to explain and highlights the complexities of the social and economic dynamics that influence the ecological success of marine protected areas. Clearly the increased and high awareness of fishery restrictions following the rezoning is a positive step. The challenge now is to understand and foster the conditions that may facilitate compliance with spatial restrictions within KNP and marine parks worldwide.     

Marine fishes (Elasmobranchii and Teleostei) from the Santana Archipelago,a Marine Protected Area in the southwestern Atlantic

The Santana Archipelago (22°23′S, 41°42′W) is located at the northern limit of the South Brazil Bight in Southeastern Brazil, a major topographic feature of the South American continental shelf relevant in terms of fisheries, biogeography and conservation. Herein, the first inventory of the ichthyofauna of the Santana Archipelago is presented, with information on the distribution and conservation status of 147 species of the Teleostei and Elasmobranchii. Sampling was performed during 15 field expeditions between March 2013 and November 2015. A total of 6931 specimens were collected using bottom trawl, beach seine, hand net and scuba diving. Records of 28 species were based on photographs, and five species were recorded through underwater sighting. The Elasmobranchii was represented by nine species in eight families and six orders, and the Teleostei by 138 species in 54 families and 26 orders. Previous records of fishes from the Archipelago consist of 18 species deposited in fish collections; therefore, 129 species are reported herein for the first time. Most (114, 77.5%) species have large geographic distributions (western Atlantic: 81 species, 55.1%; eastern and western Atlantic: 33 species, 22.4%), but seven recorded species (4.8%) are endemic to the Brazilian Province. At the Global (IUCN) level, 12 species (8.1%) are threatened with extinction. Thirteen (8.8%) species are also considered as threatened at the Regional (Brazilian) level. These results highlight the relevance of the Santana Archipelago in the Brazilian conservationist context. Possible threats to the ichtyofauna of the Archipelago are discussed, and effective measures of conservation are presented.     

南麂列岛海洋保护区浮游动物调查

主要研究南麂列岛海洋保护区浮游动物种类组成、数量分布、多样性指数、浮游动物与浮游植物动态变化及浮游动物数量变化与营养盐的关系。经鉴定共发现,浮游动物98种,主要有2个生态类群:(1)暖温带近海类群,优势种有中华哲水蚤(Calanus sinicus)、中华假磷虾(Pseudeuphausia sinicas)、五角水母(Muggiaea atlantica)、百陶箭虫(Sagitta bedoti)、拿卡箭虫(S.nagae)等;(2)暖水性外海类群,代表性种类有肥胖箭虫(S.enflata)、精致真刺水蚤(Euchaeta concinna)等。结果表明,8月份南麂列岛浮游动物生物量和丰度出现最高值,9、10月份逐渐减少,多样性指数变化范围1.78~4.38,平均3.99;保护区内浮游动物数量与浮游植物细胞密度呈良好的正相关关系,与氮含量呈负相关关系。     

中街山列岛海洋保护区鱼类物种多样性

基于2010-2012年在中街山列岛海洋保护区进行的8个航次底拖网调查数据资料,从鱼类分类学和生态类群等方面,结合多样性、资源密度和相对重要性指数,对该保护区鱼类物种多样性特征进行了分析。调查海域共采集鱼类55种,隶属2纲12目32科44属。其中,鲈形目鱼类26种,占47.3%;趋礁性鱼类41种,占74.5%;暖温性、暖水性和冷温性鱼类分别为30、24和1种,其中暖水种约占所有偶见种的70%;定居种、近海洄游种和季节性种分别为27、24和24种;底层、近底层和中上层鱼类分别占40.0%、36.4%和23.6%,其中矛尾鰕虎鱼(Chaeturichthys stigmatias)、龙头鱼(Harpodon nehereus)和鳀科鱼类分别成为各水层的绝对优势种。所有调查站点鱼类平均生物量指数夏季最高(1043.7 kg/km²),春季最低;尾数密度指数春季最高(122×10³ 尾/km²),冬季最低;生物量与尾数密度指数最高与最低季节之间均存在显著性差异(P<0.05)。对多样性的分析显示,Margalef丰富度(D)冬季最高,秋季最低,Shannon-Wiener多样性(H')与Pielou均匀度(J')均为夏季最高,秋季最低。聚类和NMDS方法分析显示不同季节鱼类群落组成格局差异极显著(P<0.01)。研究结果表明,中街山列岛海洋保护区鱼类资源结构受近海季节性洄游种类影响较大,鱼类分布季节动态多呈现洄游性更替节律,保护区内虽已出现鱼类多样性下降趋势和生态系统功能退化现象,传统经济种类的优越性在逐渐下降或边缘化,但独特的岛礁生境仍能很好地发挥着维持固有种类和提供良好栖息场所的优势,随着海洋牧场建设与一系列资源保护与修复措施,石首鱼科幼体已形成优势群体,而且保护区内出现大量小型饵料鱼类。     

Protection Enhances Community and Habitat Stability: Evidence from a Mediterranean Marine Protected Area

Rare evidences support that Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) enhance the stability of marine habitats and assemblages. Based on nine years of observation (2001–2009) inside and outside a well managed MPA, we assessed the potential of conservation and management actions to modify patterns of spatial and/or temporal variability of Posidonia oceanica meadows, the lower midlittoral and the shallow infralittoral rock assemblages. Significant differences in both temporal variations and spatial patterns were observed between protected and unprotected locations. A lower temporal variability in the protected vs. unprotected assemblages was found in the shallow infralittoral, demonstrating that, at least at local scale, protection can enhance community stability. Macrobenthos with long-lived and relatively slow-growing invertebrates and structurally complex algal forms were homogeneously distributed in space and went through little fluctuations in time. In contrast, a mosaic of disturbed patches featured unprotected locations, with small-scale shifts from macroalgal stands to barrens, and harsh temporal variations between the two states. Opposite patterns of spatial and temporal variability were found for the midlittoral assemblages. Despite an overall clear pattern of seagrass regression through time, protected meadows showed a significantly higher shoot density than unprotected ones, suggesting a higher resistance to local human activities. Our results support the assumption that the exclusion/management of human activities within MPAs enhance the stability of the structural components of protected marine systems, reverting or arresting threat-induced trajectories of change.     

Spatial and Temporal Patterns in Assemblages of Temperate Reef Fish

SYNOPSIS. For reef fish in temperate marine regions, such componentsof local assemblage diversity (i.e., within a reef) as speciesrichness, total fish density, and rank order of abundance canremain relatively constantthrough time. Long-term data (17 years)for assemblages on 2 reefs in Southern California revealed that,despite high turnover in rare species, overall species richnesswas affected only moderately by major oceanographicdisturbances.This resilience of the assemblage is in marked contrast to hightemporal variation in densities exhibited by many local populationsof individual species, and it suggests that measurements ofdiversity to indicate status of an assemblage should be usedwith caution. Here we consider various processes and factors,together with the spatial and temporal scales over which theyoperate, that can influence local diversity (and its estimation)of reef fishes. Mechanisms that can "buffer" local diversityof reef fishes include dispersal of young that inter-connectssubpopulations, high "inertia" in relative abundance and populationstructures (especially for long-lived species), and broad ecologicalrequirements of many species. These considerations suggest thatthe effect of disturbances on local diversity of reef fisheswill depend in part on the magnitude, duration, frequency andspatial scale of the perturbation. While long-term data arefew, available information suggests that, due to life historycharacteristics of the fish and the spatial and temporal scalesat which disturbances are likely to occur, assemblages of temperatemarine reef fish might be relatively resilient to environmentalperturbations     

Monitoring Spawning Activity in a Southern California Marine Protected Area Using Molecular Identification of Fish Eggs

In order to protect the diverse ecosystems of coastal California, a series of marine protected areas (MPAs) have been established. The ability of these MPAs to preserve and potentially enhance marine resources can only be assessed if these habitats are monitored through time. This study establishes a baseline for monitoring the spawning activity of fish in the MPAs adjacent to Scripps Institution of Oceanography (La Jolla, CA, USA) by sampling fish eggs from the plankton. Using vertical plankton net tows, 266 collections were made from the Scripps Pier between 23 August 2012 and 28 August 2014; a total of 21,269 eggs were obtained. Eggs were identified using DNA barcoding: the COI or 16S rRNA gene was amplified from individual eggs and sequenced. All eggs that were successfully sequenced could be identified from a database of molecular barcodes of California fish species, resulting in species-level identification of 13,249 eggs. Additionally, a surface transport model of coastal circulation driven by current maps from high frequency radar was used to construct probability maps that estimate spawning locations that gave rise to the collected eggs. These maps indicated that currents usually come from the north but water parcels tend to be retained within the MPA; eggs sampled at the Scripps Pier have a high probability of having been spawned within the MPA. The surface transport model also suggests that although larvae have a high probability of being retained within the MPA, there is also significant spillover into nearby areas outside the MPA. This study provides an important baseline for addressing the extent to which spawning patterns of coastal California species may be affected by future changes in the ocean environment.     

中街山列岛海洋保护区虾类优势种时空生态位

为了解中街山列岛海洋保护区内虾类种群特征和生存状况,根据2018年1、4、7和10月该海域拖网调查数据,基于相对重要性指数、Shannon指数、Pianka公式以及Pearson相关系数,对该海域虾类优势种的时空生态位进行分析。结果表明: 该海域共采集鉴定虾类16种,隶属于10科13属,其中葛氏长臂虾、中华管鞭虾、鲜明鼓虾、哈氏仿对虾、日本鼓虾为优势种,隶属于4科4属。优势种时间生态位宽度变化幅度较大,而空间生态位宽度变化幅度较小,时间生态位宽度与适温性呈显著相关。小型虾类日本鼓虾的时空生态位宽度值最高。哈氏仿对虾和中华管鞭虾的时间生态位重叠值最大,二者时间同步性高,季节性竞争剧烈。所有优势种均存在显著的空间生态位重叠,说明优势种虾类空间同域性高,区域性竞争整体较强。哈氏仿对虾与葛氏长臂虾的时空生态位重叠值最大,表明二者在该海域对水环境和生物环境的选择以及产卵和洄游习性等相似度高,可能存在激烈的种间竞争。本研究旨在为海洋生物时空生态位的应用研究提供参考。     

Variability in Abundance of Temperate Reef Fishes Estimated by Visual Census

Identifying sources of sampling variation and quantifying their magnitude is critical to the interpretation of ecological field data. Yet, most monitoring programs of reef fish populations based on underwater visual censuses (UVC) consider only a few of the factors that may influence fish counts, such as the diver or census methodology. Recent studies, however, have drawn attention to a broader range of processes that introduce variability at different temporal scales. This study analyzes the magnitude of different sources of variation in UVCs of temperate reef fishes off Patagonia (Argentina). The variability associated with time-of-day, tidal state, and time elapsed between censuses (minutes, days, weeks and months) was quantified for censuses conducted on the five most conspicuous and common species: Pinguipes brasilianus, Pseudopercis semifasciata, Sebastes oculatus, Acanthistius patachonicus and Nemadactylus bergi. Variance components corresponding to spatial heterogeneity and to the different temporal scales were estimated using nested random models. The levels of variability estimated for the different species were related to their life history attributes and behavior. Neither time-of-day nor tidal state had a significant effect on counts, except for the influence of tide on P. brasilianus. Spatial heterogeneity was the dominant source of variance in all but one species. Among the temporal scales, the intra-annual variation was the highest component for most species due to marked seasonal fluctuations in abundance, followed by the weekly and the instantaneous variation; the daily component was not significant. The variability between censuses conducted at different tidal levels and time-of-day was similar in magnitude to the instantaneous variation, reinforcing the conclusion that stochastic variation at very short time scales is non-negligible and should be taken into account in the design of monitoring programs and experiments. The present study provides baseline information to design and interpret results from visual census programs in temperate reefs.     

A Diverse Assemblage of Reef Corals Thriving in a Dynamic Intertidal Reef Setting (Bonaparte Archipelago,Kimberley, Australia)

The susceptibility of reef-building corals to climatic anomalies is well documented and a cause of great concern for the future of coral reefs. Reef corals are normally considered to tolerate only a narrow range of climatic conditions with only a small number of species considered heat-tolerant. Occasionally however, corals can be seen thriving in unusually harsh reef settings and these are cause for some optimism about the future of coral reefs. Here we document for the first time a diverse assemblage of 225 species of hard corals occurring in the intertidal zone of the Bonaparte Archipelago, north western Australia. We compare the environmental conditions at our study site (tidal regime, SST and level of turbidity) with those experienced at four other more typical tropical reef locations with similar levels of diversity. Physical extremes in the Bonaparte Archipelago include tidal oscillations of up to 8 m, long subaerial exposure times (>3.5 hrs), prolonged exposure to high SST and fluctuating turbidity levels. We conclude the timing of low tide in the coolest parts of the day ameliorates the severity of subaerial exposure, and the combination of strong currents and a naturally high sediment regime helps to offset light and heat stress. The low level of anthropogenic impact and proximity to the Indo-west Pacific centre of diversity are likely to further promote resistance and resilience in this community. This assemblage provides an indication of what corals may have existed in other nearshore locations in the past prior to widespread coastal development, eutrophication, coral predator and disease outbreaks and coral bleaching events. Our results call for a re-evaluation of what conditions are optimal for coral survival, and the Bonaparte intertidal community presents an ideal model system for exploring how species resilience is conferred in the absence of confounding factors such as pollution.     

Food Availability is not a Limiting Factor in the Growth of Three Australian Temperate Reef Fishes

An assumption often made but rarely tested is that post-recruitment stocks of temperate reef fishes are rarely resource limited, particularly for resources influencing growth. This has been particularly attributed to significant interranual variation in recruitment strength such that in most years stocks are not structured by intra-specific competition for resources. This assumption was tested for three temperate Australian species, the labrids Notolabrus fucicola and N. tetricus, and the monacanthid Penicipelta vittiger, by comparing growth rates from 4 to 5 randomly selected, isolated locations sharing similar habitats in south eastern Tasmania. If food resources were limiting, growth should have differed between locations depending on the ratio of population density to available food resources at each location. In comparisons of the length at age relationships between locations by ANOVA, no significant differences were detected, either in growth curve elevation or shape. These results indicate that growth is similar between locations, both spatially and temporally, and suggest growth is unlikely to be limited by density-dependent factors. Growth rates were also compared between two regions subject to differing environmental conditions. One region was influenced by river discharge waters, the other by oceanic waters. Growth differences were detected between the regions for N. fucicola and N. tetricus but not P. vittiger. The growth differences were related to either early juvenile growth rates or differing timing of recruitment between regions. For most species of temperate fishes, environmental conditions may influence growth to a greater extent than variations in food availability, presumably because local population sizes are usually below the level at which competition for food becomes important.     

Fish with Chips: Tracking Reef Fish Movements to Evaluate Size and Connectivity of Caribbean Marine Protected Areas

Coral reefs and associated fish populations have experienced rapid decline in the Caribbean region and marine protected areas (MPAs) have been widely implemented to address this decline. The performance of no-take MPAs (i.e., marine reserves) for protecting and rebuilding fish populations is influenced by the movement of animals within and across their boundaries. Very little is known about Caribbean reef fish movements creating a critical knowledge gap that can impede effective MPA design, performance and evaluation. Using miniature implanted acoustic transmitters and a fixed acoustic receiver array, we address three key questions: How far can reef fish move? Does connectivity exist between adjacent MPAs? Does existing MPA size match the spatial scale of reef fish movements? We show that many reef fishes are capable of traveling far greater distances and in shorter duration than was previously known. Across the Puerto Rican Shelf, more than half of our 163 tagged fish (18 species of 10 families) moved distances greater than 1 km with three fish moving more than 10 km in a single day and a quarter spending time outside of MPAs. We provide direct evidence of ecological connectivity across a network of MPAs, including estimated movements of more than 40 km connecting a nearshore MPA with a shelf-edge spawning aggregation. Most tagged fish showed high fidelity to MPAs, but also spent time outside MPAs, potentially contributing to spillover. Three-quarters of our fish were capable of traveling distances that would take them beyond the protection offered by at least 40–64% of the existing eastern Caribbean MPAs. We recommend that key species movement patterns be used to inform and evaluate MPA functionality and design, particularly size and shape. A re-scaling of our perception of Caribbean reef fish mobility and habitat use is imperative, with important implications for ecology and management effectiveness.     

Synergistic Effects of Climate and Fishing in a Marine Ecosystem

Current climate change and overfishing are affecting the productivity and structure of marine ecosystems. This situation is unprecedented for the marine biosphere and it is essential to understand the mechanisms and pathways by which ecosystems respond. We report that climate change and overfishing are likely to be responsible for a rapid restructuring of a highly productive marine ecosystem with effects throughout the pelagos and the benthos. In the mid-1980s, climate change, consequent modifications in the North Sea plankton, and fishing, all reduced North Sea cod recruitment. In this region, production of many benthic species respond positively and immediately to temperature. Analysis of a long-term, spatially extensive biological (plankton and cod) and physical (sea surface temperature) dataset suggests that synchronous changes in cod numbers and sea temperature have established an extensive trophic cascade favoring lower trophic level groups over economic fisheries. A proliferation of jellyfish that we detect may signal the climax of these changes. This modified North Sea ecology may provide a clear indication of the synergistic consequences of coincident climate change and overfishing. The extent of the ecosystem restructuring that has occurred in the North Sea suggests we are unlikely to reverse current climate and human-induced effects through ecosystem resource management in the short term. Rather, we should understand and adapt to new ecological regimes. This implies that fisheries management policies will have to be fully integrated with the ecological consequences of climate change to prevent a similar collapse in an exploited marine ecosystem elsewhere. Author Contributions  RRK conceived the project and GB analysed the data. RRK, GB and JAL co-wrote the paper.