Visual lateral fixation and tracking in the haematophagous bug Triatoma infestans

Summary Triatoma bugs turn away from a vertical black stripe on the inner surface of a rotating or oscillating drum by keeping it in the lateral visual field at an angle relative to the long axis of the body. The value of depends on the angular velocity w of the drum. Below w=5° s^–1, increases with increasing w, and the stripe can lie to either side of the animal. Occasionally, the bugs switch between these two tracking modes. Above w=5° s^–1, remains nearly constant at about 120° and the stripe lags behind the animal. We call this lateral tracking. At velocities over 5° s^–1 the animals track the leading edge of a wide black stripe in the same manner as they track a narrow stripe. Below 5° s^–1 they walk towards the centre of the stripe (skototaxis). Objects moving towards the insect above the horizon are also fixated at an angle of about 120°. Lateral tracking is mediated mainly by the dorsal part of the visual field, as can be shown by occluding either the dorsal or ventral halves of the eyes. The walking speed of the bugs increases significantly during lateral tracking of an oscillating stripe compared with that during frontal fixation of a stationary one. We therefore interpret lateral tracking as an escape response.     

Figure tracking by flies is supported by parallel visual streams

Visual figures may be distinguished based on elementary motion or higher-order non-Fourier features, and flies track both. The canonical elementary motion detector, a compact computation for Fourier motion direction and amplitude, can also encode higher-order signals provided elaborate preprocessing. However, the way in which a fly tracks a moving figure containing both elementary and higher-order signals has not been investigated. Using a novel white noise approach, we demonstrate that (1) the composite response to an object containing both elementary motion (EM) and uncorrelated higher-order figure motion (FM) reflects the linear superposition of each component; (2) the EM-driven component is velocity-dependent, whereas the FM component is driven by retinal position; (3) retinotopic variation in EM and FM responses are different from one another; (4) the FM subsystem superimposes saccadic turns upon smooth pursuit; and (5) the two systems in combination are necessary and sufficient to predict the full range of figure tracking behaviors, including those that generate no EM cues at all. This analysis requires an extension of the model that fly motion vision is based on simple elementary motion detectors and provides a novel method to characterize the subsystems responsible for the pursuit of visual figures.     

Mathematical and philosophical reflections on motor control systems

In line with the tradition of the Dutch school of functional morphology, an attempt is made to integrate numerical models of sarcomeres, muscle fibres, muscles, bone-connective-tissue systems, joints, muscle spindles and neural networks into one model simulating motor control. There are two purposes for this attempt. Firstly, to indicate whether numerical properties of the organs forming a system of motor control can be explained in terms of its motor functions. Secondly, to indicate properties that emerge from the integration of the organs into a system of motor control: how much more is an integrated motor system than the sum of its functional components. The motor control system of chewing has been taken as an example, particularly that in rats.     

Visual localization during eye tracking on steady background and during steady fixation on moving background

Experiments were performed to clarify the role of the background motion on the retina in the phenomenon of mislocation of brief visual stimuli during smooth eye tracking. It was found that these visual stimuli were mislocated also relative to a moving background during steady eye fixation. The magnitude of mislocation during pursuit eye movements and during steady fixation was influenced by the stimulus intensity, the background/eye velocity and the place of stimulus presentation in respect to the background; the influence having the same features in both cases. However, the magnitudes of mislocation under the two conditions were quantitatively different. The validity of a hypothesis that the eye movement itself plays no role in the process of localization, and, that this process is based on retinal information only, is considered.     

Visual detection of paradoxical motion in flies

Summary From psychophysics it is known that humans easily perceive motion in Fourier-stimuli in which dots are displaced coherently into one direction. Furthermore, motion can be extracted from Drift-balanced stimuli in which the dots on average have no distinct direction of motion, or even in paradox -motion stimuli where the dots are displaced opposite to the perceived direction of motion. Whereas Fourier-motion can be explained by very basic motion detectors and nonlinear preprocessing of the input can account for the detection of Drift-balanced motion, a hierarchical model with two layers of motion detectors was proposed to explain the perception of -motion. The well described visual system of the fly allows to investigate whether these complex motion stimuli can be detected in a comparatively simple brain.The detection of such motion stimuli was analyzed for various random-dot cinematograms with extracellular recordings from the motion-sensitive Hl-neuron in the third visual ganglion of the blowfly Calliphora erythrocephala. The results were compared to computer-simulations of a hierarchical model of motion detector networks.For Fourier- and Drift-balanced motion stimuli, the Hl-neuron responds directionally selective to the moving object, whereas for -motion stimuli, the preferred direction is given by the dot displacement. Assuming nonlinear preprocessing of the detector input, such as a half-wave rectification, elementary motion detectors of the correlation type can account for these results.Abbreviations EMD elementary motion detector     

Hormones, puffs and flies: the molecular control of metamorphosis by ecdysone.

Pulses of the steroid hormone ecdysone during late larval and prepupal development in Drosophila coordinate the activation of a large number of primary and secondary response genes, signalling the onset of metamorphosis. Molecular characterization of some of these genes has provided valuable clues to regulatory mechanisms by which the ecdysone signal is transduced and amplified.     

Mathematical models of diffusion-constrained polymerase chain reactions: basis of high-throughput nucleic acid assays and simple self-organizing systems

DNA templates amplified by polymerase chain reaction in thin polyacrylamide gels form diffusion-constrained amplicons called "polonies" (polymerase colonies) that have been used to phase DNA haplotypes over long distances, to analyse RNA splice variants, and to assay other phenomena of biological interest. We present two sets of mathematical models, one for single polony growth (SPGM) and one for two polony interaction (TPIM), that will be used to optimize polony technology. The models provide detailed predictions of polony yield, concentration profiles, growth of isolated polonies, and the interaction of neighboring polonies. The TPIM explains an experimental observation that nearby polonies deform against each other rather than interpenetrate, an effect important for optimizing polony protocols. However, the TPIM also predicts that polonies may invade each other with a complex geometry when sufficiently close. Polonies are also of interest as simple abiotic systems that exhibit lifelike properties of self-organization, growth, and development, and the models may also apply to biological phenomena involving propagation through tethering and diffusion. Our polony modeling software is available at our web site.     

Bacillus thuringiensis and microbial control of flies

Summary Some strains ofBacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) primarily the H serotype 1, produce in the surrounding medium a nucleotide, called thuringiensin, which is structurally related to ATP. Thuringiensin is a larvicide, affecting the moulting and pupation of certain species of the orders Lepidoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera and Orthoptera. The highest susceptibility is found in Diptera. Muscabac (Farmos Group Ltd.) is aB.t. preparation, registered in Finland for fly control in livestock buildings and compost toilets. It hasB.t. spores and thuringiensin as active components. Contrary to theB.t. products, based on the proteinaceous endotoxin and used for control of lepidopterous pests, Muscabac has a long-lasting effect due to the growth of the bacterium, and thus continued production of thuringiensin in the treated larval growth sites. Use of chemical insecticides has created a control problem because of the development of resistance. The possibility of fly resistance toB.t. has been tested, rearing 70 generations of the fruit flyDrosophila melanogaster in increasing concentrations of thuringiensin. No true resistance developed, neither was there cross resistance between chemicals and exotoxin. The efficacy of Muscabac for fly control has also been tested in compost and pit latrines in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, with very promising results.

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Resumen Algunas cepas deBacillus thuringiensis, en especial la cepa H serotipo 1, excretan en el medio en el cual se desarrollan un nucleótido denominado thuringiensina, estructuralmente relacionado con el ATP. La thuringiensina tiene propiedades larvicidas que afectan a la muda y a la pupación de ciertas especies de los órdenes: Lepidoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera y Orthoptera; siendo los dípteros los que presentan mayor susceptibilidad. Muscabac (Farmos Group Ltd.) es un preparado a base deB.t., registrado en Finlandia, para el control de moscas en edificios utilizados por el ganado y en plantes de compostaje. Este preparado contiene esporas deB.t. y thuringiensina como ingredientes activos. Al contrario de los compuestos deB.t. a base de endotoxinas proteícas utilizados en la lucha contra plagas de lepidópteros, Muscabac tiene un efecto residual en los lugares de desarrollo larval tratados debido a la producción continuada de thuringiensina por las bacterias en crecimiento. La utilización de insecticidas químicos ha originado problemas de control debido al desarrollo de resistencias. La posibilidad de aparición de resistencia de las moscas aB.t. ha sido estudiada criando 70 generaciones sucesivas de la moscaDrosophila melanogaster en concentraciones crecientes de thuringiensina. No se observó el desarrollo de ninguna resistencia verdadera ni tampoco de resistencias cruzadas entre compuestos químicos y la exotoxina. La eficacia de Muscabac para el control de moscas se ha experimentado así mismo en fosas de compostaje y letrinas en Dar-es-Salam (Tanzania) con resultados prometedores.

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Résumé Certaines souches deBacillus thuringiensis (B.t.), notamment celles appartenant au sérotype H1, excrétent un nucléotide, appelé thuringiensine, qui est structurellement apparenté à l'ATP. La thuringiensine est un larvicide, agissant sur la mue et la pupaison de certaines éspèces de Lépidoptères, Hyménoptères, Coléoptères et Orthoptères. Les Diptères sont les insectes les plus sensibles. Le Muscabac (Farmos Group Ltd) est une préparation deB.t. brévetée en Finland pour la lutte contre les mouches dans les étables et les toilettes. Ses composantes actives sont constituées par un mélange de spores et de thuringiensine. Contrairement aux produits contenantB.t., lesquels ont pour base l'endotoxine protéique et sont utilisés pour la lutte contre les Lépidoptères nuisibles, Muscabac a une action persistante de longue durée, due à la croissance des bactéries et à leur production de thuringiensine dans les biotopes où se développent les larves. La lutte avec les insecticides expose à des problèmes de résistance acquise. La possibilité d'une résistance des mouches àB.t. a été étudiée en élevant 70 générations de mouches de fruits,Drosophila melanogaster, dans des concentrations croissantes de thuringiensine. On n'a pas constaté de résistance réelle, ni de résistance croisée aux produits chimiques et à l'endotoxine. L'efficacité du Muscabac pour la lutte contre les mouches dans des latrines et des fosses d'aisance a été testée à Dar-es-Salam et les résultats obtenus ont été prometteurs.

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Invited paper presented at the VII International Conference on the Global Impacts of Applied Microbiology, Helsinki, 12–16.8.1985. Session 8     

Erratum to: Mathematical properties of pump-leak models of cell volume control and electrolyte balance

Homeostatic control of cell volume and intracellular electrolyte content is a fundamental problem in physiology and is central to the functioning of epithelial systems. These physiological processes are modeled using pump-leak models, a system of differential algebraic equations that describes the balance of ions and water flowing across the cell membrane. Despite their widespread use, very little is known about their mathematical properties. Here, we establish analytical results on the existence and stability of steady states for a general class of pump-leak models. We treat two cases. When the ion channel currents have a linear current-voltage relationship, we show that there is at most one steady state, and that the steady state is globally asymptotically stable. If there are no steady states, the cell volume tends to infinity with time. When minimal assumptions are placed on the properties of ion channel currents, we show that there is an asymptotically stable steady state so long as the pump current is not too large. The key analytical tool is a free energy relation satisfied by a general class of pump-leak models, which can be used as a Lyapunov function to study stability.     

Visual orientation of Ceratitis capitata flies to fruit models

Wooden and rubber fruit models of different shapes, colors, and sizes were hung in fruiting coffee trees. Spheres (7.5 cm in diam) were much more attractive to Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) than cubes, cylinders, or rectangles of equivalent surface area. Black and yellow were the most attractive of eight colors, and white and grey were the least attractive. When an array of sphere sizes were tested, the attraction to flies increased as the size of yellow spheres increased from 1.5 to 18 cm diam. Trimedlure (tert-butyl 4(5)-chloro-2-methylcyclohexanecarboxylate) enhanced the attraction for males when added to 20.3×25.4-cm yellow rectangles and to 7.5-cm black spheres.

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Zusammenfassung Fruchtattrappen aus Holz und Kautschuk verschiedener Farbe und Grösse haben sich nach Prokopy (1968) als attraktiv auf R. pomonella (Walsh) in Apfelbäumen erwiesen. Aehnliche Resultate ergaben sich, als diese mit Stikem^® überzogenen Körper in Kaffeebäumen auf Kana, Hawaii aufgehängt wurden und C. capitata beider Geschlechter anzogen. Es wurde gezeigt, dass eine Kugel (7,5 cm Durchmesser) viel attraktiver ist als ein Zylinder, ein Rechteck oder ein Kubus gleicher Fläche (Tafel I, Exper: 2). Gelbe Kugeln, die wahrscheinlich die Reflexion des Laubwerks nachahmen, wurden mit zunehmender Grösse für beide Geschlechter attraktiver. Schwarze Kugeln, die wahrscheinlich die spektrale Absorption von Früchten nachahmen, zeigten eine optimale Attraktion zwischen 3,2 und 7,5 cm Durchmesser. Gelbe und schwarze Kugeln von 7,5 cm Durchmesser waren gleich anziehend und waren am attraktivsten von acht berücksichtigten Farben, während weiss und grau am wenigsten attraktiv waren.In einer zusätzlichen Studie wurde Trimedlure, ein Männchenlockstoff, auf einen Wattebausch gebracht und an eine schwarze 7,5 cm Kugel und an ein gelbes 20×25 cm Rechteck gehängt. Damit wurde die Attraktion beider Körper für Männchen, nicht aber für Weibchen erhöht. Die Verwendung eines Männchen- oder Weibchenlockstoffs zusammen mit visuellen Fallen kann zur Entwicklung einer wirksameren Falle führen.

     

Mathematical properties of pump-leak models of cell volume control and electrolyte balance

Homeostatic control of cell volume and intracellular electrolyte content is a fundamental problem in physiology and is central to the functioning of epithelial systems. These physiological processes are modeled using pump-leak models, a system of differential algebraic equations that describes the balance of ions and water flowing across the cell membrane. Despite their widespread use, very little is known about their mathematical properties. Here, we establish analytical results on the existence and stability of steady states for a general class of pump-leak models. We treat two cases. When the ion channel currents have a linear current-voltage relationship, we show that there is at most one steady state, and that the steady state is globally asymptotically stable. If there are no steady states, the cell volume tends to infinity with time. When minimal assumptions are placed on the properties of ion channel currents, we show that there is an asymptotically stable steady state so long as the pump current is not too large. The key analytical tool is a free energy relation satisfied by a general class of pump-leak models, which can be used as a Lyapunov function to study stability.     

Visual neuroscience: how flies segregate moving objects from the optic flow field

Moving animals often have difficulty detecting moving objects because self-generated optic flow patterns confound image motion. The new hypothesis of 'regressive motion salience' reveals simple rules used by fruit?flies.     

Utilization of simple phenolics for dinitrogen fixation by soil diazotrophic bacteria

Summary A microaerobic diazotrophic bacterium tentatively identified as aPseudomonas species was isolated from a forest soil. Its nitrogenase (C₂H₂ reduction) activity in liquid medium was significantly supported by phenolic compounds when compared with glucose-, mannitol- or malate-supported activity. The utilization of phenolics was dependent on substrate induction and the appropriate oxygen concentration. At a pO₂ of 0.05 protocatechuate was a better carbon source for N₂ fixation than glucose. In the case ofLignobacter protocatechuate was a better carbon source for N₂ fixation than glucose at pO₂ 0.2 but not at pO₂ 0.05. It is suggested that certain monomeric phenols can support nitrogenase activities in many carbon-limited soil environments.Contribution No. 1484 from the Chemistry and Biology Research Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Canada.     

Mathematical analysis of multienzyme systems. II. Steady state and transient control.

The control theory of steady states, previously presented for linear enzymatic systems (Heinrich and Rapoport, 1974) is extended to nonlinear systems. On the basis of three theorems a new procedure for the calculation of the control strength and of the control matrix is developed. The theory is applied to the extended model of glycolysis of erythrocytes, which includes also ATP-consuming processes. Also in this model the glycolytic flux is mainly controlled by the hexokinase-phosphofructokinase-system. The control strengths of the pyruvate kinase and of the enzymes of the 2.3 P2G-bypass are negligibly small. The control strength of the ATPase is negative, i.e. an activation of this enzyme leads to a decrease of the flux. For transition states of multienzyme systems definitions are given for the mean time required for the transition of the metabolites and for the "transient control" of enzymes. Enzymes with a pronounced influence on the transition time are called time-limiting enzymes. Enzymes which excert strong control on the time-dependent processes may have little influence under steady state conditions and vice versa. The transition times of ATP have been calculated for transient states of glycolysis.