Nutritional status and oral status of the elderly with dementia: a 2-year study

doi: 10.1111/j.1741‐2358.2011.00555.x Nutritional status and oral status of the elderly with dementia: a 2‐year study Objectives: To determine the relationship between denture wearing and nutritional status in the elderly with dementia. Background: There could be a correlation between nutrition, oral health, dietary habits, patients’ satisfaction, and their socio‐economic status in the elderly, and the relationship between compromised oral status and nutritional status in the elderly with dementia. Subjects and methods: A 2‐year follow‐up study of 63 elderly Japanese women with and without dentures from a nursing home was undertaken to investigate their oral, physical and mental, and nutritional status. Results: Each item for 2006 and 2008 in this study showed no significant difference between 2006 and 2008, except the calories/day. The elderly with dementia without complete dentures during the 2 years of the study only significantly decreased the mean of the calories/day. Conclusion: The calories/day of the elderly with dementia without dentures decreased after 2 years. Denture wearing for the elderly with dementia could be necessary to maintain a satisfactory intake of calories.     

Nitrogen Balance in Patients with Chronic Renal Failure on Diets Containing Varying Quantities of Protein

Twenty-four nitrogen balances have been performed in 16 patients with chronic renal failure, with a protein intake of 0·23 to 1·0 g./kg./day. The results show that most patients with chronic renal failure require about 0·5 g./kg./day (35 g. for a 70-kg. man) to remain in nitrogen balance. The proportion of high-quality protein in the diets varied from 40 to 98% and the calorie intake from 23·6 to 59·0 calories/kg./day (1,330 to 3,310 calories/day). Within these ranges the proportion of high-quality protein and the calorie content did not have a detectable effect on the nitrogen balance.It is concluded that when other forms of treatment for renal failure are available, reduced protein diets should be used for only short periods, and that the protein intake should be 0·5 g./kg./day to maintain the patient in nitrogen balance.     

Meal energy content is related to features of meal-related ghrelin profiles across a typical day of eating in non-obese premenopausal women.

Some features of the meal-related profile of ghrelin correspond to acute energy intake, suggesting a role in short-term energy homeostasis. Yet, no studies have examined this relationship across a typical day of eating when effects of time of day and or cumulative energy intake may also exist. AIM OF STUDY: To examine the relation between ghrelin and acute energy intake by quantifying changes in ghrelin over 24 hours in response to three typical meals and a snack occurring throughout the day. METHODS: Fourteen non-obese women consumed three meals and a snack at specific times; total ghrelin was measured repeatedly over 24 hours. RESULTS: Significant correlations existed between: 1) meal calories and the post-meal trough (r = - 0.36; p < 0.05), and 2) the sum of breakfast and lunch calories and subsequent dinner rise (r = - 0.45; p < 0.02) and 3) the sum of breakfast and lunch calories and dinner peak (r = - 0.54; p < 0.003). Thus, as energy intake increased across the day, pre-meal rises of subsequent meals were reduced. CONCLUSION: Meal-related profiles of ghrelin are not only associated with the energy content of specific meals, but also with the accumulated calories prior to a subsequent meal, suggesting a role in the modulation of acute energy homeostasis.     

Calorie consumption level influences development of C3H/Ou breast adenocarcinoma with indifference to calorie source

To analyze simultaneously the influence attributable to calorie consumption level and percentage of dietary fat on the spontaneous development of mammary adenocarcinoma, virgin female C3H/Ou mice were separated into five dietary groups. Four groups of mice were fed purified diets either ad libitum (16-18 kcal/mouse/day) or restricted 40% in calorie consumption (10-11 kcal/mouse/day), and diets contained either 4.5%, 7.5%, 67%, or 68% calories from fat. Mice that consumed isocaloric diets developed breast malignancy at a comparable pace. Consuming a diet in which fats were present only at levels sufficient to satisfy the threshold requirement of essential fatty acids, 4.5-7.5% of the total calories, or alternatively where dietary fat represented greater than 67% of the total calories consumed, did not significantly alter the tendency for breast tumor development. The pace and frequency with which tumors occurred reflected the host's level of calorie consumption. Mice consuming a high caloric diet, low or high in fat, tended to have a shortened latency to breast tumor formation, an increased incidence of breast tumors, elevated serum prolactin levels, elevated levels of antibodies to mouse mammary tumor virus, and elevated circulating immune complex levels.     

Dietary fat increases energy intake across the range of typical consumption in the United States

Objective: The fat content of a diet has been shown to affect total energy intake, but controlled feeding trials have only compared very high (40% of total calories) fat diets with very low (20% of total calories) fat diets. This study was designed to measure accurately the voluntary food and energy intake over a range of typical intake for dietary fat. Methods and Procedures: Twenty‐two non‐obese subjects were studied for 4 days on each of three diets, which included core foods designed to contain 26, 34, and 40% fat, respectively of total calories and ad lib buffet foods of similar fat content. All diets were matched for determinants of energy density except dietary fat. Subjects consumed two meals/day in an inpatient unit and were provided the third meal and snack foods while on each diet. All food provided and not eaten was measured by research staff. Results: Voluntary energy intake increased significantly as dietary fat content increased (P = 0.008). On the 26% dietary fat treatment, subjects consumed 23.8% dietary fat (core and ad lib foods combined) and 2,748 ± 741 kcal/day (mean ± s.d.); at 34% dietary fat, subjects consumed 32.7% fat and 2,983 ± 886 kcal/day; and at 40% dietary fat subjects consumed 38.1% fat and 3,018 ± 963 kcal/day. Discussion: These results show that energy intake increases as dietary fat content increases across the usual range of dietary fat consumed in the United States. Even small reductions in dietary fat could help in lowering total energy intake and reducing weight gain in the population.     

Frequency and Circadian Timing of Eating May Influence Biomarkers of Inflammation and Insulin Resistance Associated with Breast Cancer Risk

Emerging evidence suggests that there is interplay between the frequency and circadian timing of eating and metabolic health. We examined the associations of eating frequency and timing with metabolic and inflammatory biomarkers putatively associated with breast cancer risk in women participating in the National Health and Nutrition Examination 2009–2010 Survey. Eating frequency and timing variables were calculated from 24-hour food records and included (1) proportion of calories consumed in the evening (5pm-midnight), (2) number of eating episodes per day, and (3) nighttime fasting duration. Linear regression models examined each eating frequency and timing exposure variable with C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations and the Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR). Each 10 percent increase in the proportion of calories consumed in the evening was associated with a 3 percent increase in CRP. Conversely, eating one additional meal or snack per day was associated with an 8 percent reduction in CRP. There was a significant interaction between proportion of calories consumed in the evening and fasting duration with CRP (p = 0.02). A longer nighttime fasting duration was associated with an 8 percent lower CRP only among women who ate less than 30% of their total daily calories in the evening (p = 0.01). None of the eating frequency and timing variables were significantly associated with HOMA-IR. These findings suggest that eating more frequently, reducing evening energy intake, and fasting for longer nightly intervals may lower systemic inflammation and subsequently reduce breast cancer risk. Randomized trials are needed to validate these associations.     

A new model for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in the rat utilizing total enteral nutrition to overfeed a high-polyunsaturated fat diet

We have used total enteral nutrition (TEN) to moderately overfeed rats high-polyunsaturated fat diets to develop a model for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Male Sprague-Dawley rats were fed by TEN a 187 kcal.kg(-3/4).day(-1) diet containing 5% (total calories) corn oil or a 220 kcal.kg(-3/4).day(-1) diet in which corn oil constituted 5, 10, 25, 35, 40, or 70% of total calories for 21 or 65 days. Rats fed the 5% corn oil, 220 kcal.kg(-3/4).day(-1)diet had greater body weight gain (P < or = 0.05), fat mass (P < or = 0.05), and serum leptin and glucose levels (P < or = 0.05), but no liver pathology. A dose-dependent increase in hepatic triglyceride deposition occurred with increase in percent corn oil in the 220 kcal.kg(-3/4).day(-1) groups (P < or = 0.05). Steatosis, macrophage infiltration, apoptosis, and focal necrosis were present in the 70% corn oil group, accompanied by elevated serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels (P < or = 0.05). An increase in oxidative stress (thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances) and TNF-alpha expression (P < or = 0.05) was observed in the 70% corn oil group, as well as an increase in hepatic CYP2E1 and CYP4A1 expression (P < or = 0.05). Significant positive correlations were observed between the level of dietary corn oil and the degree of pathology, ALTs, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Liver pathology was progressive with increased necrosis, accompanied by fibrosis, observed after 65 days of TEN. Increased expression of CD36 and l-fabp mRNA suggested development of steatosis was associated with increased fatty acid transport. These data suggest that intragastric infusion of a high-polyunsaturated fat diet at a caloric level of 17% excess total calories results in pathology similar to clinical NASH.     

Retention of Nitrogen,Fat, and Calories in Infants of Low Birth Weight on Conventional and High-Volume Feed

Two balance studies were performed on each of five infants of low birth weight. About 230 ml/kg/day of S.M.A. S26 milk was given during one study and 180 ml/kg/day during the other. The proportion of nitrogen, fat, and calories retained was similar in the two studies, suggesting that the larger weight gains on the high-volume feeds were due to growth rather than retention of water or excessive deposition of fat.     

Consumer estimation of recommended and actual calories at fast food restaurants

Recently, localities across the United States have passed laws requiring the mandatory labeling of calories in all chain restaurants, including fast food restaurants. This policy is set to be implemented at the federal level. Early studies have found these policies to be at best minimally effective in altering food choice at a population level. This paper uses receipt and survey data collected from consumers outside fast food restaurants in low-income communities in New York City (NYC) (which implemented labeling) and a comparison community (which did not) to examine two fundamental assumptions necessary (though not sufficient) for calorie labeling to be effective: that consumers know how many calories they should be eating throughout the course of a day and that currently customers improperly estimate the number of calories in their fast food order. Then, we examine whether mandatory menu labeling influences either of these assumptions. We find that approximately one-third of consumers properly estimate that the number of calories an adult should consume daily. Few (8% on average) believe adults should be eating over 2,500 calories daily, and approximately one-third believe adults should eat lesser than 1,500 calories daily. Mandatory labeling in NYC did not change these findings. However, labeling did increase the number of low-income consumers who correctly estimated (within 100 calories) the number of calories in their fast food meal, from 15% before labeling in NYC increasing to 24% after labeling. Overall knowledge remains low even with labeling. Additional public policies likely need to be considered to influence obesity on a large scale.     

Imperfect information on physical activity and caloric intake

Using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data, I find that individuals who overestimate their activity level by one standard deviation consume 40–60 extra calories per day, or enough to gain five pounds per year. These extra calories are composed mainly of sugar and carbohydrate, and are concentrated among individuals in the 75th and 90th percentiles of caloric intake. The link between overeating and inaccurate estimation of physical activity is strongest among less educated individuals and individuals with high variance in their physical activity, suggesting that imperfect recall or information gaps explain at least part of the relationship of interest. These results imply the existence of a necessary condition for physical activity-based information treatments to be effective in changing health behaviors and obesity rates.     

Maternal obesity at conception programs obesity in the offspring

Risk of obesity in adult life is subject to programming during gestation. To examine whether in utero exposure to maternal obesity increases the risk of obesity in offspring, we developed an overfeeding-based model of maternal obesity in rats utilizing intragastric feeding of diets via total enteral nutrition. Feeding liquid diets to adult female rats at 220 kcal/kg(3/4) per day (15% excess calories/day) compared with 187 kcal/kg(3/4) per day for 3 wk caused substantial increase in body weight gain, adiposity, serum insulin, leptin, and insulin resistance. Lean or obese female rats were mated with ad libitum AIN-93G-fed male rats. Exposure to obesity was ensured to be limited only to the maternal in utero environment by cross-fostering pups to lean dams having ad libitum access to AIN-93G diets throughout lactation. Numbers of pups, birth weight, and size were not affected by maternal obesity. Male offspring from each group were weaned at postnatal day (PND)21 to either AIN-93G diets or high-fat diets (45% fat calories). Body weights of offspring from obese dams did not differ from offspring of lean dams when fed AIN-93G diets through PND130. However, offspring from obese dams gained remarkably greater (P < 0.005) body weight and higher % body fat when fed a high-fat diet. Body composition was assessed by NMR, X-ray computerized tomography, and weights of adipose tissues. Adipose histomorphometry, insulin sensitivity, and food intake were also assessed in the offspring. Our data suggest that maternal obesity at conception leads to fetal programming of offspring, which could result in obesity in later life.     

Preferential alcoholic embryopathy: effects of liquid diets.

Our initial report of a preferential expression of experimental alcoholic embryopathy affecting the male offspring contiguous in utero to male siblings of Long-Evans rats was based on gavage administration of alcohol to pregnant rats without regard to isocaloric, pair-fed exposure paradigms. In this study, pregnant Long-Evans rats were given 35% ethanol-derived calories (EDC) in one of two different liquid diets: 1) a liquid alcohol diet based on Sustacal, a flavored liquid food formulated for human nutritional standards; and 2) a high-protein liquid rodent diet devised by Lieber and DeCarli (L&D). The diets were administered from day 6 to 15 of gestation. Pregnant rats were pair-fed liquid diets containing 0% EDC, but isocalorically balanced to 35% EDC with either sucrose (Sustacal) or maltose-dextrin (L&D). A fifth group of pregnant rats was given access ad libitum to standard certified laboratory rodent diet and served as free-fed controls. On day 20 of gestation, all pregnant rats were euthanized and the products of conception examined by standard teratologic techniques. Pregnant animals fed Sustacal-based diets consistently consumed fewer calories per kilogram body weight per day from day 6 to 15 of gestation (i.e., they were significantly calorie-deprived during pregnancy) as compared with the standard laboratory-diet-fed controls or those consuming L&D diets. Body weights of rats consuming Sustacal diets (both 0 and 35% EDC) were significantly lower throughout gestation when compared with all other groups. Higher (> 150 mg/dl) blood alcohol levels were attained by rats consuming 35% EDC in Sustacal diet as compared with L&D (100 mg/dl) diets.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

RGS6 variants are associated with dietary fat intake in Hispanics: the IRAS Family Study

Recently, a genome-wide association scan was completed in the IRAS (Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study) Family Study (IRASFS) Hispanic-American cohort. Multiple single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the G-protein signaling 6 (RGS6) gene were found to be associated with adiposity phenotypes. RGS6 has shown downstream antagonistic interplay with opioid receptors, targets of fatty/sugary food agonists. The possibility that RGS6 promotes tolerance and tachyphylaxis among the opioid receptor is a plausible pathway for overconsuming fat/sugar-laden food. Therefore, we hypothesized that RGS6 variants are associated with intake of fatty/sugary foods. In 932 Hispanics from San Antonio and San Luis Valley, CO, the following dietary intake variables were assessed using the Block Brief 2000 food frequency questionnaire: total calories, total fat, % calories from fat, % calories from saturated fat, protein, % calories from protein, carbohydrates, % calories from carbohydrates, and daily frequency of servings of fats/oils/sweets. We tested for association between 23 SNPs in RGS6 and dietary intake using a variance components measured genotype approach. All models were adjusted for gender, recruitment site, admixture, BMI, and age. Using an additive genetic model, rs1402064 was associated with higher intake of fats/oils/sweets, total calories, total fat and saturated fat (P = 0.0007, 0.026, 0.023, and 0.024). SNPs rs847330 and rs847354 were associated with higher intake of fats/oils/sweets (P = 0.002 and 0.018), total fat (P = 0.040 and 0.048) and saturated fat (P = 0.044 and 0.041). Finally, rs769148 was associated with higher intake of fats/oils/sweets (P = 0.002). RGS6 is a new candidate gene for adiposity traits that may be associated with a behavioral tendency toward fat-laden food intake.     

The permeability of the human erythrocyte to sodium and potassium

Measurements have been made on the permeability of the human erythrocyte to Na and K in vitro, using radioactive tracers to observe the system in the steady state. The average inward K flux is 1.67 m.eq./liter cells hour, and the apparent activation energy is 12,300 ± 1300 calories/mol. The inward K flux is independent of the external K concentration in the range of concentrations studied (4 to 16 m.eq. K/liter plasma). Rb appears to compete with K for transport into the cell, whereas Na and Li do not. The average inward Na flux is 3.08 ± 0.57 m.eq. Na/liter cells hour, and the apparent activation energies are 20,200 ± 2700 calories/mol for inward transport, and 14,900 ± 3,400 calories/mol for outward transport. The inward Na flux is dependent on the external Na concentration, but not in a linear fashion. Li appears to compete with Na for inward transport, whereas K and Rb do not. An approximate maximum estimate shows that the energy required for cation transport is only 8.8 calories/mol liter cells hour of the 110 calories/mol liter cells hour available from the consumption of glucose. A working hypothesis for the transport of Na and K is presented.     

Studies of the permeability of isolated porcine peritoneum to nutrients: saccharides

Isolated peritoneal membrane, freshly harvested from pigs, was studied in vitro to determine the permeability of the membrane to saccharide nutrients. Studies were performed with glucose and sucrose at various transmembrane gradients ranging from 150 to 600 mosm/liter (mmol/liter) and with polysaccharide at a 300 mosm/liter gradient. Findings indicate that flux of these nutrients across the isolated peritoneum is related to molecular weight and that sufficient kilocalories will traverse the membrane to provide for adequate carbohydrate nutrition (calculated to deliver more than 3000 kcal/day at gradients of 150 mosm/liter). Polysaccharide flux studies suggest that carbohydrate calories may be provided in the form of complex molecules and not only in the form of glucose. Studies of 1:1 serum and polysaccharide mixtures showed the conversion of polysaccharide to glucose by serum in vitro. When rats were given intraperitoneal polysaccharide their blood glucose levels rose promptly although they remained fasting, suggesting an in vivo conversion also occurs. These findings provide support for use of polysaccharides intraperitoneally as means to reduce the osmolarity of fluid administered for nutritional support; this would increase tolerance while still providing ample calories. The in vitro apparatus used in these studies provides a mechanism to study individual nutrients and yields highly reproducible results. These studies add further evidence that intraperitoneal nutrition is feasible.     

Effect of ethanol feeding on the urinary histamine level of the pregnant rat

The influence of ethanol feeding during pregnancy on histamine excretion was studied. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats (N = 5) were fed a liquid diet containing 30% ethanol-derived calories from gestation-day 7 to 21; control rats (N = 5) were pair-fed with isocaloric sucrose substituted for ethanol. Twenty-four hour urines were collected for histamine analysis. Rats were killed on day 21 of gestation. Food and ethanol intakes averaged 260 kcal and 11 g/kg/day, respectively. No differences were found between ethanol and control rats in maternal weight gain, litter size or in fetal and placental weights. Although urinary histamine increased in all rats with the advance of pregnancy, on day 16, ethanol rats excreted significantly more (47%) than the controls (199.1 +/- 33.9 vs 135.5 +/- 51.4 ug/24 hr); on day 20, it was 123% more (534.6 +/- 114.4 vs 239.5 +/- 99.3 ug/24 hr). Ethanol enhanced urinary histamine did not reflect the histamine content or histidine decarboxylase activity of fetal liver, presumed site of histamine formation; its physiological significance is discussed.     

Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the quantitative importance of dietary fatty acids and dietary cholesterol to blood concentrations of total, low density lipoprotein, and high density lipoprotein cholesterol. DESIGN: Meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies of solid food diets in healthy volunteers. SUBJECTS: 395 dietary experiments (median duration 1 month) among 129 groups of individuals. RESULTS: Isocaloric replacement of saturated fats by complex carbohydrates for 10% of dietary calories resulted in blood total cholesterol falling by 0.52 (SE 0.03) mmol/l and low density lipoprotein cholesterol falling by 0.36 (0.05) mmol/l. Isocaloric replacement of complex carbohydrates by polyunsaturated fats for 5% of dietary calories resulted in total cholesterol falling by a further 0.13 (0.02) mmol/l and low density lipoprotein cholesterol falling by 0.11 (0.02) mmol/l. Similar replacement of carbohydrates by monounsaturated fats produced no significant effect on total or low density lipoprotein cholesterol. Avoiding 200 mg/day dietary cholesterol further decreased blood total cholesterol by 0.13 (0.02) mmol/l and low density lipoprotein cholesterol by 0.10 (0.02) mmol/l. CONCLUSIONS: In typical British diets replacing 60% of saturated fats by other fats and avoiding 60% of dietary cholesterol would reduce blood total cholesterol by about 0.8 mmol/l (that is, by 10-15%), with four fifths of this reduction being in low density lipoprotein cholesterol.     

The energetic costs of tail autotomy to reproduction in the lizard Coleonyx brevis (Sauria: Gekkonidae)

Summary Energy reserve utilization and energy budgets were compared in tailed and tailless adult female Coleonyx brevis. Carcass, fat body and caudal energy reserves were used for vitellogenesis; mass and energy content (cal/mg and/or cal/reserve) of each were significantly lower at oviposition than at the initiation of vitellogenesis. Total energy reserves accounted for 53% of the reproductive energy investment in tailed females compared to 29% in tailless females. Tailed females had over twice as many reserve calories for egg production than tailless females. Caudal energy reserves represented 60% of the total reserves of tailed females and were one-third greater than the total energy reserves of tailless females. To produce a clutch of eggs both tailed and tailless females supplemented energy reserves with net metabolizable energy that was available after metabolic costs were paid. Tailless females had a significantly greater rate of food ingestion and more net metabolizable energy available for reproduction than tailed females, yet allocated significantly fewer calories/day to reproduction than tailed females, primarily because of the loss of caudal reserves. Reproductive efforts of tailed and tailless females were equivalent. However, the loss of caudal reserves resulted in the production of eggs that were significantly lower in mass and energy content (cal/mg and cal/egg) than when caudal reserves were used. Results empirically support the hypothesis that reproduction has energetic priority over tail regeneration in short-lived, iteroparous species with a low probability of future reproductive success.     

Curcumin prevents liver fat accumulation and serum fetuin-A increase in rats fed a high-fat diet

Fetuin-A is synthesized in the liver and is secreted into the bloodstream. Clinical studies suggest involvement of fetuin-A in metabolic disorders such as visceral obesity, insulin resistance, diabetes, and fatty liver. Curcumin is extracted from the rhizome Curcuma longa and has been shown to possess potent antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic properties. In this study, we investigated the effect of curcumin treatment on serum fetuin-A levels as well as hepatic lipids and prooxidant–antioxidant status in rats fed a high-fat diet (HFD). Male Sprague–Dawley rats were divided into six groups. Group 1 was fed control diet (10 % of total calories from fat). Groups 2 and 3 were given curcumin (100 and 400 mg/kg bw/day, respectively ) by gavage for 8 weeks and were fed control diet. Group 4 was fed with HFD (60 % of total calories from fat). Groups 5 and 6 received HFD together with the two doses of curcumin, respectively. Curcumin treatment appeared to be effective in reducing liver triglycerides and serum fetuin-A levels. These findings suggest that the reduction of fetuin-A may contribute to the beneficial effects of curcumin in the pathogenesis of obesity.     

Diet-induced obesity impairs mammary development and lactogenesis in murine mammary gland

We have developed a mouse model of diet-induced obesity that shows numerous abnormalities relating to mammary gland function. Animals ate approximately 40% more calories when offered a high-fat diet and gained weight at three times the rate of controls. They exhibited reduced conception rates, increased peripartum pup mortality, and impaired lactogenesis. The impairment of lactogenesis involved lipid accumulation in the secretory epithelial cells indicative of an absence of copius milk secretion. Expression of mRNAs for beta-casein, whey acid protein, and alpha-lactalbumin were all decreased immediately postpartum but recovered as lactation was established over 2-3 days. Expression of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC)-alpha mRNA was also decreased at parturition as was the total enzyme activity, although there was a compensatory increase in the proportion in the active state. By day 10 of lactation, the proportion of ACC in the active state was also decreased in obese animals, indicative of suppression of de novo fatty acid synthesis resulting from the supply of preformed fatty acids in the diet. Although obese animals consumed more calories in the nonpregnant and early pregnant states, they showed a marked depression in fat intake around day 9 of pregnancy before food intake recovered in later pregnancy. Food intake increased dramatically in both lean and obese animals during lactation although total calories consumed were identical in both groups. Thus, despite access to high-energy diets, the obese animals mobilized even more adipose tissue during lactation than their lean counterparts. Obese animals also exhibited marked abnormalities in alveolar development of the mammary gland, which may partially explain the delay in differentiation evident during lactogenesis.