The structures of dorsal and ventral regions of a dragonfly retina

Summary The apposition eyes of the corduliid dragonfly Hemicordulia tau are each divided by pigment colour, facet size and facet arrangement into three regions: dorsal, ventral, and a posterior larval strip. Each ommatidium has two primary pigment cells, twenty-five secondary pigment cells, and eight receptor cells, all surrounded by tracheae which probably prevent light passing between ommatidia, and reduce the weight of the eye. Electron microscopy reveals that the receptor cells are of two types: small vestigial cells making virtually no contribution to the rhabdom, and full-size typical cells. The ventral ommatidia have a distal typical cell (oriented either horizontally or vertically), four medial typical cells, two proximal typical cells and one full-length vestigial cell. The dorsal ommatidia have only four full-length typical cells, and one distal and three vestigial full-length cells. The cross-section of dorsal rhabdoms is small and circular distally, but expands to a large three-pointed star medially and proximally. The tiered receptor arrangement in the ventral ommatidia is typical of other Odonata but the dorsal structure has not been fully described in other species. Specialised dorsal eye regions are typical of insects that detect others against the sky.     

Requirement for endoderm and FGF3 in ventral head skeleton formation

The vertebrate head skeleton is derived in part from neural crest cells, which physically interact with head ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm to shape the pharyngeal arches. The cellular and molecular nature of these interactions is poorly understood, and we explore here the function of endoderm in this process. By genetic ablation and reintroduction of endoderm in zebrafish, we show that it is required for the development of chondrogenic neural crest cells, including their identity, survival and differentiation into arch cartilages. Using a genetic interference approach, we further identify Fgf3 as a critical component of endodermal function that allows the development of posterior arch cartilages. Together, our results reveal for the first time that the endoderm provides differential cues along the anteroposterior axis to control ventral head skeleton development and demonstrate that this function is mediated in part by Fgf3.     

The morphology and evolution of the ventral gill arch skeleton in batoid fishes (Chondrichthyes: Batoidea)

The ventral gill arch skeleton was examined in some representatives of batoid fishes. The homology of the components was elucidated by comparing similarities and differences among the components of the ventral gill arches in chondrichthyans, and attempts were made to justify the homology by giving causal mechanisms of chondrogenesis associated with the ventral gill arch skeleton. The ceratohyal is present in some batoid fishes, and its functional replacement, the pseudohyal, seems incomplete in most groups of batoid fishes, except in stingrays. The medial fusion of the pseudohyal with successive ceratobranchials occurs to varying degrees among stingray groups. The ankylosis between the last two ceratobranchials occurs uniquely in stingrays, and it serves as part of the insertion of the last pair of coracobranchialis muscles. The basihyal is possibly independently lost in electric rays, the stingray genus Urotrygon (except U. daviesi) and pelagic myiiobatoid stingrays. The first hypobranchial is oriented anteriorly or anteromedially, and it varies in shape and size among batoid fishes. It is represented by rami projecting posterolaterally from the basihyal in sawfishes, guitarfishes and skates. It consists of a small piece of cartilage which extends anteromedially from the medial end of the first ccratobranchial in electric rays. It is a large cartilaginous plate in most of stingrays. It is absent in pelagic myliobatoid stingrays. The remaining hypobranchial cartilages also vary in shape and size among batoid fishes. Torpedo and possibly the Jurassic Belemnobalis and Spathobatis possess the generalized or typical chondrichthyan ventral gill arch structure in which the hypobranchials form a Σ-shaped pattern. In the electric ray Hypnos and narkinidid and narcinidid electric rays, the hypobranchial components are oriented longitudinally along the mid-portion of the ventral gill arches. They form a single cartilaginous plate in the narkinidid electric rays, Narcine and Diplobatis. In guitarfishes and skates, the second hypobranchial is unspecialized, and in skates, it does not have a direct contact with the second ceratobranchial. In both groups, the third and fourth hypobranchials are composed of a small cartilage which forms a passage for the afferent branches of the ventral aorta and serve as part of the insertion of the coracobranchialis muscle. In sawfishes and stingrays, the hypobranchials appear to be included in the medial plate. In sawfishes, the second and third components separately chondrify in adults, but the fourth component appears to be fused with the middle medial plate. In stingrays, a large medial plate appears to include the second through to the last hypobranchial and most of the basibranchial copulae. The medial plate probably develops independently in sawfishes and stingrays. Because the last basibranchial copula appears to be a composite of one to two hypobranchials and at least two basibranchial copulae, the medial plate may be formed by several developmental processes of chondrogenesis. More detailed comparative anatomical and developmental studies are needed to unveil morphogenesis and patternings of the ventral gill arch skeleton in batoid fishes.     

Ultrastructural and cytochemical studies on the ventral pouch of Gastrothylax crumenifer (Digenea:Paramphistomidae)

The ventral pouch of G. crumenifer consists of an extensive atrium, opening just behind the mouth and ending blindly at the level of the testes. It is lined by a thin tegument underlain by numerous flask shaped pyriform cells. The non-glandular nature of the pyriform cell cytoplasm and the presence of haemoglobin and numerous mitochondria suggest that the pouch fulfils primarily a respiratory role. Contractions and relaxations of musculature associated with the pouch may ventilate the pouch with ruminal fluid, or with gaseous oxygen which may be present in small quantities in the rumen. Oxygen taken up by haemoglobin in pyriform cells may be transferred to haemoglobin in the lymph system, and thence distributed internally.     

Nuclear skeleton structures in some normal and tumor cells

Nuclear protein fractions, described earlier, were identified as constituents of the nuclear sap (the globulin fraction), that of the nucleoli and ribonucleoprotein network (the acidic protein), and of the nuclear envelope (the residual protein). The latter two fractions compose the protein skeleton of the cell nucleus.An essential difference between electrophoretic profiles of nuclear skeleton structures in experimental tumors and those of normal tissues was revealed. Tumor preparations contained more high molecular weight polypeptides and, in earlier stages of growth, low molecular weight components as well. Fractionation of the nuclear matrix proteins showed that the bulk of them are soluble in diluted alkali. The alkali-insoluble fraction retains the shape of the nucleus and appears in the electron microscope as a spongy nuclear skeleton. A finely dispersed fraction sedimenting from the alkaline suspension is enriched with the pore complexes. The fractions obtained differ in protein composition and probably contain protein components which are similar in molecular weights but non-identical.Abbreviations KD kilodaltons - NM nuclear matrix - PAAG polyacrylamide gel - PC pore complex - RP residual protein     

鲸的起源与演化

近年发现的一些有腿鲸的化石表明,鲸的大致演化路线是：由主要陆生的巴基鲸;经过水陆两栖的陆行鲸,到基本水生但仍有发达肢体的罗德侯鲸,再到完全水生。后肢大为退化的矛齿鲸和古蜥鲸,最后大概由矛齿鲸演化出现代的齿鲸和须鲸,其间共经历了约5000万年的历史,基于牙齿的相似,原以为鲸的祖先是原始的有蹄动物中兽类。但DNA的序列分析显示,鲸与偶蹄类河马的亲缘关系最为相近,最近发现,古鲸普遍具有偶蹄类那样的双滑车关节面的距骨,因而认为鲸的祖先可能是古偶蹄类。     

Retinoic acid is required for specification of the ventral eye field and for Rathke's pouch in the avian embryo

We have investigated the role of retinoic acid (RA) in eye development using the vitamin A deficient quail model system, which overcomes problems of retinoic acid synthesising enzyme redundancy in the embryo. In the absence of retinoic acid, the ventral optic stalk and ventral retina are missing, whereas the dorsal optic stalk and dorsal retina develop appropriately. Other ocular abnormalities observed were a thinner retina and the lack of differentiation of the lens. In an attempt to explain this, we studied the expression of various dorsally and ventrally expressed genes such as Pax2, Pax6, Tbx6, Vax2, Raldh1 and Raldh3 and noted that they were unchanged in their expression patterns. In contrast, the RA catabolising enzymes Cyp26A1 and Cyp26B1 which are known to be RA-responsive were not expressed at all in the developing eye. At much earlier stages, the expression domain of Shh in the prechordal plate was reduced, as was Nkx2.1 and we suggest a model whereby the eye field is specified according to the concentration of SHH protein that is present. We also describe another organ, Rathke's pouch which fails to develop in the absence of retinoic acid. We attribute this to the down-regulation of Bmp2, Shh and Fgf8 which are known to be involved in the induction of this structure.     

The lens membrane skeleton contains structures preferentially enriched in spectrin-actin or tropomodulin-actin complexes

The spectrin-based membrane skeleton plays an important role in determining the distributions and densities of receptors, ion channels, and pumps, thus influencing cell shape and deformability, cell polarity, and adhesion. In the paradigmatic human erythrocyte, short tropomodulin-capped actin filaments are cross-linked by spectrin into a hexagonal network, yet the extent to which this type of actin filament organization is utilized in the membrane skeletons of nonerythroid cells is not known. Here, we show that associations of tropomodulin and spectrin with actin in bovine lens fiber cells are distinct from that of the erythrocyte and imply a very different molecular organization. Mechanical disruption of the lens fiber cell membrane skeleton releases tropomodulin and actin-containing oligomeric complexes that can be isolated by gel filtration column chromatography, sucrose gradient centrifugation and immunoadsorption. These tropomodulin-actin complexes do not contain spectrin. Instead, spectrin is associated with actin in different complexes that do not contain tropomodulin. Immunofluorescence staining of isolated fiber cells further demonstrates that tropomodulin does not precisely colocalize with spectrin along the lateral membranes of lens fiber cells. Taken together, our data suggest that tropomodulin-capped actin filaments and spectrin-cross-linked actin filaments are assembled in distinct structures in the lens fiber cell membrane skeleton, indicating that it is organized quite differently from that of the erythrocyte membrane skeleton.     

The skeleton in the closet

The origins of fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) in human history are unknown but the condition has been well described since Freke's account in 1740. Important contributions by physicians and scientists in the past two and a half centuries have converged on the remarkable skeleton of Harry Eastlack at The Mutter Museum of The College of Physicians in Philadelphia.     

X-ray structures of ferritins and related proteins

Ferritins are members of a much larger superfamily of proteins, which are characterised by a structural motif consisting of a bundle of four parallel and anti-parallel α helices. The ferritin superfamily itself is widely distributed across all three living kingdoms, in both aerobic and anaerobic organisms, and a considerable number of X-ray structures are available, some at extremely high resolution. We describe first of all the subunit structure of mammalian H and L chain ferritins and then discuss intersubunit interactions in the 24-subunit quaternary structure of these ferritins. Bacteria contain two types of ferritins, FTNs, which like mammalian ferritins do not contain haem, and the haem-containing BFRs. The characteristic carboxylate-bridged di-iron ferroxidase sites of H chain ferritins, FTNs and BFRs are compared, as are the potential entry sites for iron and the ‘nucleation’ site of L chain ferritins. Finally we discuss the three-dimensional structures of the 12-subunit bacterial Dps (DNA-binding protein from starved cells) proteins as well as their intersubunit di-iron ferroxidase site.     

骨骼的内分泌功能

既往认为骨骼是支持机体基本结构和参与运动及钙磷代谢的主要器官。近年发现组成骨骼的成骨细胞和破骨细胞能合成和分泌多种骨调节蛋白、生长因子、脂肪因子、炎症因子和心血管活性肽等多种生物活性物质,以旁/自分泌方式调节骨骼系统功能,并能通过血液循环远距分泌的方式,调节机体能量代谢、炎症反应和内分泌稳态等。     

The true body shape of rorqual whales

Live Sei and Minke whales were observed underwater off Japan by a new method using commercial catcher boats. A non-explosive harpoon was fired into the tail region of a whale and a diver approached the tethered live whale.
After initial flurries, Sei and Minke whales swam steadily ahead of the catcher and could easily be approached by a diver. They took absolutely no notice of the diver. Live Sei and Minke whales kept their mouths tight shut all the time, but immediately after death the lower jaw always fell open. Little blood was emitted from the harpoon wound. The flippers were raised laterally when a whale surfaced and held against the sides of the body when it dived.
The body shape of both rorqual species was streamlined and the throat region was quite flat, not in any way dilated. The classical baggy-throated illustrations of rorqual whales do not show the true shape of live animals.
Sperm whales harpooned by the same method swam about wildly, shed much blood and could not be observed underwater.     

The capacitive function of the spleen during electrical stimulation of the structures of the ventral section of the medulla oblongata

In acute experiments on cats under perfusion with constant blood expenditure of hemodynamically isolated spleen the authors studied the reactions of its vessels in the electrical stimulation of ventral brainstem. It was shown that the stimulation of the rostral zone of these structures increased vein outflow from the spleen. It was shown the deterioration of the parametres which characterize a capacitance function of the spleen by stimulation of a causal depressor zone of the brainstem by means of the current of threshold size and its increase by irritation of the brain structures with a 2 threshold current size. There have been made a supposition has been made about the participation of the pointed structures of the brain in the regulation of a vasomotion tonus of the spleen vessels.