Failure of linguistic relationships to predict genetic distances between the Waiãpi and other tribes of lower Amazonia

Data on blood group, serum protein, erythrocyte enzyme, and histocompatibility antigen (HLA) traits are presented for the Waiãpi, a Tupispeaking tribe of the Brazilian and French Guianas. Intra- and intertribal comparisons have been made between these data, and previously published data from French Guiana, from another Tupi tribe and from other tribes of neighboring areas, and from the continent as a whole. For this purpose, we have modified the usual measure of genetic distance to obtain a value which is independent of the number of loci being considered. The intertribal genetic distances do not correlate with linguistic affinity. Social differences, which may have affected the rate of drift from the continental mean, correlate better with genetic distances.     

Restriction and persistence of polymorphisms of HLA and other blood genetic traits in the Parakanã Indians of Brazil

Results concerning HLA types and 22 other blood genetic systems are reported for the Parakanã Indians of northern Brazil, a tribe that is notable for the light color and pilosity of some of its members. No clear evidence of Caucasoid admixture was found, but the Parkanã show unusual frequencies in the EsD¹, PGM¹₁, Gc², Cp^B, Fy^a, Di^a, and L^M genetic markers. In addition, the very rare Rh allele r^y is present, as well as what seems to be a new PGM₂ variant. There is very limited heterogeneity in the HLA system. All these distinctive features may have arisen through a combination of founder effects and genetic drift. However, low F_is values, as well as higher mean ages in heterozygous as compared to homozygous persons, suggest that an heterotic effect is counteracting these dispersive forces.     

Genetic distance and gene diversity among linguistically different tribes of Mexican Indians.

Using gene frequency data for 14 genetic loci, genetic distances between 13 tribes of Mexican Indians belonging to 12 language groups were determined and a dendrogram was constructed. The genetic distance between tribes is correlated more with geographic proximity than with language affinity. The gene diversity (heterozygosity) of the total population was decomposed into the three components, i.e., the gene diversity between three main linguistic groups, the gene diversity between tribes within the main linguistic groups and the gene diversity within tribes. About 95% of the total gene diversity exists within tribes, the intergroup and intertribe components being only about 5%.     

Genetic variation within two linguistic Amerindian groups: relationship to geography and population size

Nine Carib and eight Tupi groups were studied for a minimum of eight common polymorphic systems and compared in terms of genetic distances using the methods of Nei and Edwards. Two levels of genetic information were distinguished, one with a maximum of 20 loci and another with a maximum of 12 loci considered. The dendrograms produced consistent, reproducible results, independent of the method used, when a minimum of ten polymorphic systems were included in the analysis. Irrespective of the number of systems or the method used, the Tupi showed two to three times higher average interpopulation genetic distances than the Carib groups, which may be due to their lower average population sizes, allowing for the action of genetic drift and/or founder effects, as these two sets of populations do not differ significantly in geographic range, years of contact with non-Indians, or degree of acculturation.     

Blood groups and H-Lea salivary secretion of Brazilian Cayapo Indians

Five hundred and twenty-six individuals from four populations were studied in relation to the ABO, MNSs, P, Rh, Lutheran, Kell, Lewis, Duffy, Kidd, Diego and I systems, as well as for the Wright antigen of blood groups. The H-Le^a salivary secretion of 406 of them was also investigated. Considering the gene markers which show variation in South American Indians, the Cayapo frequencies are in the middle of the distribution range for genes L^Ms, R¹ (CDe), R² (cDE), P¹, Jk^a, Di^a and Se but present high values of Le and Fy^a and low ones of L^MS, L^Ns, R^o (cDe) and/or r (cde), L^NS and R^z (CDE). Unusual findings in relation to previous studies are the high prevalence of Le (a+) persons (which, however, could be expected since the frequency of gene Se is not too high) and the presence of one Lu (a+) and one PP₁ (Tj^a) (?) individuals. Comparison of the pattern of inter-village variation in relation to these polymorphisms with those furnished by historical, demographic and morphological data gives in general reasonable concordance, but some results are difficult to interpret. New approaches and further multidisciplinary studies are needed to obtain a clearer picture of the genetic relationships present among different tribes of South American Indians as well as to understand how polymorphisms are created and maintained in human populations.     

Demography and genetics of the Krahó and Gorotire Indians of Brazil

Three populations of two Brazilian Ge-speaking groups, the Krahó and Gorotire, have been studied demographically and the results compared with previous investigations on their genetic polymorphisms. The Krahó population is older, more acculturated, and has a smaller sex ratio than the Gorotire. It may also have derived from a larger number of founders. Intertribal marriages occurred with relative frequency among the Krahó, but in the Gorotire the predominant picture is one of exchange with other Cayapo subgroups. The latter have a distribution range roughly 9 × larger than the Krahó. The reproductive histories of the Krahó and Gorotire are similar, leading to equivalent estimates of selection potential. But mortality may have been selectively more important among the Krahó. Wright's fixation index F is of the same order of magnitude in the two groups and intermediate between values obtained among the North American Indian Zuni and the East Indian Bhil. Despite considerable exogamy it showed positive values.     

The Brazilian Xavante Indians revisited: New protein genetic studies

A total of 94 individuals from the Xavante village of Rio das Mortes were variously studied in relation to 28 protein genetic systems. No variation was observed for 15 of them, in accordance with previous studies. Of the remaining 13, four (Rh, Duffy, acid phosphatase, and GC) showed significant departures from the averages obtained in 32 other South American Indian populations. If studies performed in the 1960s are considered, there is indication that no significant changes in this village's gene pool has occurred in the last 30 years. Comparison with two other Xavante populations included nine systems with variation, and for three of them (MNSs, Rh, and Duffy) significant differences were found. Genetically the Rio das Mortes are closer to the São Marcos than to the Simões Lopes Xavantes. A dendrogram considering 25 genetic systems and 33 South American Indian populations was constructed. There the Xavante were grouped together, in two neighboring clusters, with three other tribes who speak Ge languages. But these clusters also present populations who speak other languages, and the reproducibility of the tree is low. South American Indians, at least with this set of markers, do not seem to be clearly classified into defined subgroups. Am J Phys Anthropol 104:23–34, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Human biology in Mexico. II. A comparison of blood group, serum and red cell enzyme frequencies, and genetic distances of the Indian populations of Mexico

Three hundred and ninety-five individuals from two populations from the State of Tlaxcala, Mexico, were studied in relation to the ABO, Rh, MNS, P, Kell, Lewis, Diego, Kidd, Duffy, Haptoglobin, Transferrin, Group specific component, Albumin, Acid Phosphatase and Phosphoglucomutase systems. One of the populations (San Pablo del Monte) is Indian, while the other (City of Tlaxcala) is Mestizo. The alleles which show variation in the Mestizo population are intermediate between the Spanish and the Indian gene frequencies. Three different genetic distance measures suggest that the Mestizo population is a triracial hybrid, while the Indian population is closely related to its two most proximal geographic neighbors, Vera Cruz and Puebla.     

Species delimitation in a range-restricted group of cascudinhos (Loricariidae: Epactionotus) supports morphological and genetic differentiation across coastal rivers of southern Brazil

Epactionotus species are known for inhabiting the rocky-bottom stretches of fast-flowing rivers in a limited geographic area along the Atlantic coast of southern Brazil. These species are endemic to single coastal river drainages (two neighbouring drainages for Epactionotus bilineatus) isolated from each other by the coastal lacustrine environments or the Atlantic Ocean. E. bilineatus is from the Maquiné and Três Forquilhas River basins, both tributaries of the Tramandaí River system, whereas E. itaimbezinho is endemic to the Mampituba River drainage and Epactionotus gracilis to the Araranguá River drainage. Recent fieldwork in the Atlantic coastal drainages of southern Brazil revealed new populations in the Urussanga, Tubarão, d'Una and Biguaçu River drainages. Iterative species delimitation using molecular data (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I) and morphology (morphometrics and meristics) was applied to evaluate species recognition of isolated populations. With regard to new data, the genus was re-diagnosed, the status of Epactionotus species/populations was re-evaluated, formerly described species were supported and population structure was recognized. As for the newly discovered populations, both morphological and molecular data strongly support the population from the Biguaçu River drainage, in Santa Catarina State, as a new species. Molecular data revealed strong per-basin population structure, which may be related to species habitat specificity and low or no dispersal among drainages.     

Isolation by distance, linguistic similarity, and the genetic structure on Bougainville Island

Previous research has revealed extensive genetic variation among villages on Bougainville, in the Solomon Islands. Using previously published gene frequency data for seven loci, the role of isolation by distance in structuring genetic variation on Bougainville was reanalyzed. Newer methods of kinship estimation show that earlier estimates of the isolation by distance parameters were low. The fit of the model is highly significant (R2 = 0.409; P less than 0.001), and the parameter estimates indicate high isolation: a = 0.0538, b = 0.1978, L = -0.0057. Several methods of residual analysis were applied in order to determine factors affecting the fit of the model. Linguistic similarity has a significant effect on genetic variation once the effects of geographic distance are taken into account. Population-specific deviations from the expected model may be explained, in part, in terms of population history. Compared to other human populations, Bougainville Island shows an even greater among-group variation than has been suggested previously.     

Genetic studies in Paraguay: blood group, red cell, and serum genetic patterns of the Guayaki and Ayore Indians, Mennonite settlers, and seven other Indian tribes of the Paraguayan Chaco

Genetic studies of 540 Paraguayan Indians from nine tribal groups and 51 Mennonites are presented for ABO, MNSs, P₁, Rh, Kell, Lewis, Duffy, Diego; for serum immunoglobulins and haptoglobins, G6PD-deficiency, and thalassemia trait. Group O gene frequencies for all Indian groups were 1.00; for r (cde), 0.00. Tapiete, Lengua, Toba, and Sanapana R_z (CDE) frequencies were among the highest ever reported. N frequencies were high for Ache Kwera (Guayaki), Lengua, Cheroti, Guarayu, Tapiete; N and s low for Ayore. MS frequencies were high for Sanapana, Lengua, Ayore; Ns for Tapiete. Diego was notably absent for Toba, Lengua, Guarayu, Tapiete, Ayore. Homogeneous frequencies for Fy^a (1.000) occurred among Guarayu and Tapiete, and for P₁ among Guayaki. Inv(a) frequencies were low for Cheroti, Chulupi, Guayaki. Hp 1 among Guayaki (Ache Kwera 0.15) is lowest ever reported. G6PD deficiency and abnormal hemoglobins were uniformly absent from all groups. Mennonite results were homogeneous and point toward Dutch origins. Differences among groups studied, and between Paraguayan and other Amerinds emphasize importance of genetic drift and founder principle. Abandonment of their tribes by mixed-blood offspring is partly responsible for apparent genetic purity and homogeneity of groups.     

Origin of the Koreans: a population genetic study.

A population genetic study was undertaken to investigate the origin of Koreans. Thirteen polymorphic and 7 monomorphic blood genetic markers (serum proteins and red cell enzymes) were studied in a group of 437 Koreans. Genetic distance analyses by both cluster and principal components models were performed between Koreans and eight other populations (Koreans in China, Japanese, Han Chinese, Mongolians, Zhuangs, Malays, Javanese, and Soviet Asians) on the basis of 47 alleles controlled by 15 polymorphic loci. A more detailed analysis using 65 alleles at 19 polymorphic loci was performed on six populations. Both analyses demonstrated genetic evidence of the origin of Koreans from the central Asian Mongolians. Further, the Koreans are more closely related to the Japanese and quite distant from the Chinese. The above evidence of the origin of Koreans fits well with the ethnohistoric account of the origin of Koreans and the Korean language. The minority Koreans in China also maintained their genetic identity.     

The meaning of genetic variation within and between subpopulations

Summary Argumentation is presented which indicates that the additive decomposition of the total genetic variation of a population into variation within and between (among) its subpopulations suffers from conceptual inconsistency. While the measurement of variation between subpopulations can be shown to be identical to the measurement of subpopulation differentiation, the notion of variation within subpopulations, when viewed as a single measurement, cannot be derived as an independent and cogent concept. Rather, it appears to be merely technically defined as the arithmetic difference between the total variation and the variation between subpopulations, and this difference happens to be non-negative for concave measures of variation such as the (statistical) variance or certain measures of genetic diversity. In order to overcome the conceptual inconsistency, variation between subpopulations could be regarded as subpopulation differentiation and the notion of variation within subpopulations could be replaced by measurements of the degree to which the variation in the total population is represented within the subpopulations. A complementary situation with respect to total variation is thus realized once more, and appropriate measures can be directly derived from existing ones.     

The St. Lawrence Island Eskimos: genetic variation and genetic distance

The Eskimos of St. Lawrence Island have been typed for genetic variation at 44 discrete genetic loci. Three private polymorphisms, at the 2,3-diphosphoglycerate mutase, peptidase B, and purine nucleoside phosphorylase loci, have been observed, which may be useful in future studies of genetic relationships between Eskimos and other circumpolar populations. Genetic distance analysis reveals a close relationship between the St. Lawrence Island Eskimos and other Eskimo populations and that the Eskimo populations form a distinct cluster from Amerindian populations. The St. Lawrence Island Eskimos appear to be more similar to Asiatic Eskimos than to other groups. Caucasian admixture in this population is estimated to be between 2 and 7%.     

Ethnic communities in Israel: The genetic blood markers of the Moroccan Jews

One hundred and ninety-six Moroccan Jews now settled in Israel were typed for 7 blood groups, 12 red cell enzymes and 2 plasma protein systems. Their blood group picture is in agreement with results previously obtained on different samples of Moroccan Jews: rather high B in ABO, somewhat elevated frequencies of cDE and cDe in Rh and K in Kell. Differences in various blood markers exist between them and other North African Jewish communities. This fact, together with data on disease distribution and HLA frequencies, supports our assumption that Jews in the North African diaspora lived as small secluded isolates even within the same geographical zones. Comparisons with meager data on the neighboring non-Jewish populations do not disclose any resemblance to either Arab or Berber inhabitants of Morocco.     

Genes and people in the caspian littoral: A population genetic study in northern Iran

Data for the distribution of alleles controlling two blood group systems and secretor status, for hemoglobin types, five serum protein groups and 15 red cell enzyme systems has been obtained. Eleven of the systems showed polymorphic variation and these systems have been used to calculate genetic distances using Morton's Kinship measure. No systematic relationship between genetic distance and geographic location of linguistic affiliation is apparent. There is, however, an apparent cline of decreasing frequency of PGD^c from east to west and also significant differences in the frequency of G6PD deficiency corresponding to variation in the ecology of the region. Genetic distance comparisons with other selected populations reveal that the Turkic and Turkoman speaking peoples in the Caspian area cluster with the Kurds, Greeks and Iranis. The Persian speakers are genetically remote from these populations; they are, however, close to the Parsis who migrated from Iran to India at the end of the Seventh Century A.D. Several unusual genetic variants were detected, including a novel MDH pheno-type, a superoxide dismutase phenotype identical with the Scandinavian type, and rare forms of LDH, PGM locus 2, ceruloplasmin, diaphorase, peptidases and PHI.     

The Chipaya of Bolivia: Dermatoglyphics and ethnic relationships

Dermatoglyphic data on 15 traits (digital arches, digital radial loops, digital ulnar loops, digital whorls, I loops, I_r loops, H loops, ? loops, III loops, IV loops, mainline C absence, total ridge count, a-b ridge count, atd angle, and mainline index) are presented for 141 Chipaya Indians of Bolivia. Ethnic relationships of these Indians to nine South American Indian tribes (Alacaluf, Atacameño, Aymara, Cashinahua, Chácobo, Chama, Chané, Quechua, and Sirionó) are explored by means of a genetic distance analysis using 21 alleles. Genetic distances are complemented with linguistic and geographic distances between the Chipaya and the other tribes. Genetic distances were found not to be significantly correlated with linguistic and geographic distances. Combining the information available, it is concluded that the Chipaya are most likely ethnically related to the Arawak speakers of the tropical forest.     

Ethnic communities in Israel: The genetic blood markers of the Babylonian Jews

One hundred eighty-eight Jewish individuals who either they or whose both parents were born in Iraq were typed for 7 blood groups (ABO, MNS, Rh, Kell, Duffy, P and Kidd), 12 red cell enzyme systems and 2 serum proteins. Iraqi Jews are characterized by a high frequency of A (in ABO), N (in MNS), low cde (Rh) and low Hp-1. Several rare electrophoretic variants were encountered: PGM₁ 6-1, PHI 3-1 and PHI 2-1, and an unidentified AK phenotype. No evidence of Negroid admixture was found in their gene pool. Comparisons with results previously obtained in Iraqi Jews show general similarities in frequencies while comparisons with neighboring non-Jewish populations suggest divergence in most systems investigated. The difficulties of assessing relationships on the basis of a few selected differences and the need for careful interpretations of similarities are emphasized.     

Lumbo-sacral malformations and spina bifida occulta in a group of proto-historic Modoc Indians

A complex lumbo-sacral malformation has been found in an unusually high frequency in a group of proto-historic Modoc Indians. Following a short review of vertebral abnormalities in general, the condition is described. It is suggested tentatively that inbreeding might be in part responsible for the high frequency.