Prevalence patterns of avian haemosporida on Hispaniola

We used PCR to screen for the presence of haemosporidian parasites (Phylum: Apicomplexa; Order: Haemosporida) in avian blood samples, and sequenced the parasite mitochondrial cytochrome b gene from infected hosts, to study patterns in the prevalence of haemosporidians in 1,166 individuals of 50 species in four habitats along an elevation gradient in the Sierra de Bahoruco, Dominican Republic, island of Hispaniola. We found an overall prevalence of 0.44 among species with ≥10 individuals sampled per year, but this varied considerably among species. We found no difference in infection rates between years, between males and females, between second‐year (<1 y old) and older birds, or among members of different foraging guilds. Prevalence differed significantly among migratory, endemic resident, and non‐endemic resident species, with endemics having the highest rates of infection. Prevalence also varied among habitats, decreasing with increasing elevation, but the pattern was confounded by variation in the host species present at each elevation. From 215 sequenced parasites from 17 species of avian hosts, we recovered multiple examples of 12 lineages of Haemoproteus (Parahaemoproteus), two lineages of a Columbiformes‐specific clade of H. (Haemoproteus), and 10 lineages of Plasmodium, with an additional seven lineages sampled only once. A single parasite lineage was responsible for 34.4% of all infections, but five more lineages made up 41.8% of all infections. Several lineages were broadly distributed across multiple host species, but six lineages, all H. (Haemoproteus) or H. (Parahaemoproteus), were recorded from at least five individuals of a single host, suggesting host specialization. The number of host species from which each parasite lineage was recovered varied from one to nine; several host species harbored as many as 5–9 parasite lineages. Longitudinal data suggest that while hosts might harbor the same parasite lineage for more than a year, some hosts appear to clear infections from their circulating blood, while others manifested infections by a different parasite lineage.     

The price of conserving avian phylogenetic diversity: a global prioritization approach

The combination of rapid biodiversity loss and limited funds available for conservation represents a major global concern. While there are many approaches for conservation prioritization, few are framed as financial optimization problems. We use recently published avian data to conduct a global analysis of the financial resources required to conserve different quantities of phylogenetic diversity (PD). We introduce a new prioritization metric (ADEPD) that After Downlisting a species gives the Expected Phylogenetic Diversity at some future time. Unlike other metrics, ADEPD considers the benefits to future PD associated with downlisting a species (e.g. moving from Endangered to Vulnerable in the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List). Combining ADEPD scores with data on the financial cost of downlisting different species provides a cost–benefit prioritization approach for conservation. We find that under worst-case spending $3915 can save 1 year of PD, while under optimal spending $1 can preserve over 16.7 years of PD. We find that current conservation spending patterns are only expected to preserve one quarter of the PD that optimal spending could achieve with the same total budget. Maximizing PD is only one approach within the wider goal of biodiversity conservation, but our analysis highlights more generally the danger involved in uninformed spending of limited resources.     

New linkages for protected areas: Making them worth conserving and restoring

In an increasingly human-dominated world, more realistic, holistic and durable linkages need to be created for protected areas (PAs), for the sake of long-term conservation of species and habitats, and of ecosystem goods and services for serving the local people, as well as societies at large. In conjunction, geographical, physical and biological concepts of linkages need to be extended to embrace socio-economic factors. This paper develops a conceptual approach to this task, employing the nascent notions of ‘emerging ecosystems’, restoring natural capital and ‘socio-ecological systems’. We employ the value notion generally used by economic science, i.e. monetary value, as a conceptual tool in the unavoidable assessment process that modern societies must undertake to decide about conserving or restoring PAs, and ecosystems in general. We also draw attention to the importance of ecological and socio-economic thresholds of irreversibility in the evaluation and decision-making process concerning PAs and their linkages with other PAs, and especially with the unprotected world beyond their boundaries.     

The role of roadsides in conserving Cerrado plant diversity

The structure of Cerrado vegetation (sensu stricto) along roadsides was compared with that of protected areas (reserves). The superior stratum of reserves had 2.7 times more individuals and 1.4 times more species than on roadsides, while in the intermediate stratum there were 1.7 times more individuals and 25 % more species in reserves. Additionally, roadsides had a lower prevalence of tree species with thin bark and from forest physiognomies. In the intermediate stratum of roadsides there was a lower proportion of forest species, and also fewer species dispersed by animals. These differences occur, possibly because the vegetation of their edges is cleared during the construction of the roads and part of the soil is taken as landfill. Later, they suffer from a higher fire frequency and high coverage of exotic grasses (80 % average). Moreover, it is likely that the absence of some dispersers on roadsides may affect the recruitment of young plants. Despite these differences, the roadsides are able to maintain at least 70 % of tree species and 72 % of shrub species found in reserves. These results show that roadside vegetation can contribute to the conservation of the flora of Cerrado. This is particularly important considering that over 60 % of the original area of this ecosystem has been destroyed and that less than 4 % is protected. With 32,012 km of roads in the Cerrado alone, the roadside vegetation may represent a cumulative area of 96,000 of hectares, an area larger than many of the Cerrado’s national parks.     

Perennial biomass feedstocks enhance avian diversity

Federal mandates to increase biofuel production in North America will require large new tracts of land with potential to negatively impact biodiversity, yet empirical information to guide implementation is limited. Because the temperate grassland biome will be a production hotspot for many candidate feedstocks, production is likely to impact grassland birds, a group of major conservation concern. We employed a multiscaled approach to investigate the relative importance of arthropod food availability, microhabitat structure, patch size and landscape‐scale habitat structure and composition as factors shaping avian richness and abundance in fields of one contemporary (corn) and two candidate cellulosic biomass feedstocks (switchgrass and mixed‐grass prairie) not currently managed as crops. Bird species richness and species density increased with patch size in prairie and switchgrass, but not in corn, and was lower in landscapes with higher forest cover. Perennial plantings supported greater diversity and biomass of arthropods, an important food for land birds, but neither metric was important in explaining variation in the avian community. Avian richness was higher in perennial plantings with greater forb content and a more diverse vegetation structure. Maximum bird species richness was commonly found in fields of intermediate vegetation density and grassland specialists were more likely to occur in prairies. Our results suggest that, in contrast to corn, perennial biomass feedstocks have potential to provide benefits to grassland bird populations if they are cultivated in large patches within relatively unforested landscapes. Ultimately, genetic improvement of feedstock genets and crop management techniques that attempt to maximize biomass production and simplify crop vegetation structure will be likely to reduce the value of perennial biomass plantings to grassland bird populations.     

The adequacy of Victoria's protected areas for conserving its forest‐dependent fauna

Networks of protected areas are a key component of efforts to conserve biodiversity. However, there are concerns about an uncritical focus on the percentage area of reserves without an assessment of how well formal reserves are actually protecting biodiversity. In response, we completed a spatial analysis of the formal reserve system in the Australian state of Victoria. We quantified how well the reserve system captured a crude surrogate for vegetation communities (viz: Ecological Vegetation Classes) as well as distribution models for an array of threatened forest‐dependent species. We found evidence of a high degree of overlap between areas subject to intensive forestry (clearcutting) operations and the modelled distribution of a suite of forest‐dependent species. A key outcome of our study was that areas around sites subject to past logging as well as new areas proposed for logging under the Timber Release Plan in Victoria had significantly higher values for threatened forest‐dependent species (as determined by habitat distribution models) than areas that had not been logged. We found significant differences in the spatial characteristics of the dedicated reserve systems and informal protected area networks, with the latter featuring much of its area close to a tenure boundary where logging occurs. Our empirical analyses demonstrating the impacts of ongoing logging operations on areas with high environmental suitability for threatened species have important implications. In particular, the current reserve system is inadequate for a suite of forest‐dependent taxa, including critically endangered Leadbeater's Possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) and the vulnerable Greater Glider (Petauroides volans). This suggests a high degree of conflict between areas of high value for conservation and areas targeted for wood production.     

The worldwide impact of urbanisation on avian functional diversity

Urbanisation is driving rapid declines in species richness and abundance worldwide, but the general implications for ecosystem function and services remain poorly understood. Here, we integrate global data on bird communities with comprehensive information on traits associated with ecological processes to show that assemblages in highly urbanised environments have substantially different functional composition and 20% less functional diversity on average than surrounding natural habitats. These changes occur without significant decreases in functional dissimilarity between species; instead, they are caused by a decrease in species richness and abundance evenness, leading to declines in functional redundancy. The reconfiguration and decline of native functional diversity in cities are not compensated by the presence of exotic species but are less severe under moderate levels of urbanisation. Thus, urbanisation has substantial negative impacts on functional diversity, potentially resulting in impaired provision of ecosystem services, but these impacts can be reduced by less intensive urbanisation practices.     

Protected areas: mixed success in conserving East Africa's evergreen forests

In East Africa, human population growth and demands for natural resources cause forest loss contributing to increased carbon emissions and reduced biodiversity. Protected Areas (PAs) are intended to conserve habitats and species. Variability in PA effectiveness and 'leakage' (here defined as displacement of deforestation) may lead to different trends in forest loss within, and adjacent to, existing PAs. Here, we quantify spatial variation in trends of evergreen forest coverage in East Africa between 2001 and 2009, and test for correlations with forest accessibility and environmental drivers. We investigate PA effectiveness at local, landscape and national scales, comparing rates of deforestation within park boundaries with those detected in park buffer zones and in unprotected land more generally. Background forest loss (BFL) was estimated at -9.3% (17,167 km(2)), but varied between countries (range: -0.9% to -85.7%; note: no BFL in South Sudan). We document high variability in PA effectiveness within and between PA categories. The most successful PAs were National Parks, although only 26 out of 48 parks increased or maintained their forest area (i.e. Effective parks). Forest Reserves (Ineffective parks, i.e. parks that lose forest from within boundaries: 204 out of 337), Nature Reserves (six out of 12) and Game Parks (24 out of 26) were more likely to lose forest cover. Forest loss in buffer zones around PAs exceeded background forest loss, in some areas indicating leakage driven by Effective National Parks. Human pressure, forest accessibility, protection status, distance to fires and long-term annual rainfall were highly significant drivers of forest loss in East Africa. Some of these factors can be addressed by adjusting park management. However, addressing close links between livelihoods, natural capital and poverty remains a fundamental challenge in East Africa's forest conservation efforts.     

Prospects for Malaria Elimination in Mesoamerica and Hispaniola

Malaria remains endemic in 21 countries of the American continent with an estimated 427,000 cases per year. Approximately 10% of these occur in the Mesoamerican and Caribbean regions. During the last decade, malaria transmission in Mesoamerica showed a decrease of ~85%; whereas, in the Caribbean region, Hispaniola (comprising the Dominican Republic [DR] and Haiti) presented an overall rise in malaria transmission, primarily due to a steady increase in Haiti, while DR experienced a significant transmission decrease in this period.The significant malaria reduction observed recently in the region prompted the launch of an initiative for Malaria Elimination in Mesoamerica and Hispaniola (EMMIE) with the active involvement of the National Malaria Control Programs (NMCPs) of nine countries, the Regional Coordination Mechanism (RCM) for Mesoamerica, and the Council of Health Ministries of Central America and Dominican Republic (COMISCA). The EMMIE initiative is supported by the Global Fund for Aids, Tuberculosis and Malaria (GFATM) with active participation of multiple partners including Ministries of Health, bilateral and multilateral agencies, as well as research centers. EMMIE’s main goal is to achieve elimination of malaria transmission in the region by 2020. Here we discuss the prospects, challenges, and research needs associated with this initiative that, if successful, could represent a paradigm for other malaria-affected regions.     

Complementary monoclonal antibody-based dot ELISA for universal detection of H5 avian influenza virus

Background  

Rapid diagnosis and surveillance for H5 subtype viruses are critical for the control of H5N1 infection.     

Urbanisation effects on the functional diversity of avian agricultural communities

Urbanisation is affecting ecological communities worldwide. Despite the disproportionate impact on farmland over other habitats, the effect on farmland bird communities has been poorly studied. Considering the still-alarming conservation status of farmland birds, investigations into the effects of pressures such as urbanisation on those communities could be of great interest for their conservation. We studied the urbanisation effects on functional diversity using existing indices designed for the purpose of standardisation. This study uses a functional character measuring species habitat specialisation for indices calculation. A bird survey was conducted on 92 plots of 1 × 1 km chosen after stratification on the proportion of urban area and farmland habitat (either 0, 25, 50, 75%), with the focus on farmland habitat. Two aspects of urbanisation were studied: the intensity and the age of the urbanisation. Functional richness was found to decrease with urbanisation, while functional evenness and divergence increased in a nonlinear way. No significant difference was observed in functional richness and evenness with urbanisation age, however extreme ages of urbanisation (young and old) showed higher niche differentiation concerning specialisation. This implies less important resource competition for species and a more vulnerable state for the ecosystem. Using functional diversity indices based on specialisation allows a better insight in the consequences of urbanisation on diversity/ecosystem–community functioning, which is of crucial importance in the face of global changes.     

Small montane cloud forest fragments are important for conserving tree diversity in the Ecuadorian Andes

Montane tropical cloud forests, with their complex topography, biodiversity, high numbers of endemic species, and rapid rates of clearing, are a top global conservation priority. However, species distributions at local and landscape scales in cloud forests are still poorly understood, in part because few regions have been surveyed. Empirical work has focused on species distributions along elevation gradients, but spatial variation among forests at the same elevation is less commonly investigated. In this study, the first to compare tree communities across multiple Andean cloud forests at similar elevations, we surveyed trees in five ridge‐top forest reserves at the upper end of the ‘mid‐elevation diversity bulge’ (1900–2250 masl) in the Intag Valley, a heavily deforested region in the Ecuadorian Andes. We found that tree communities were distinct in reserves located as close as 10 to 35 km apart, and that spatially closer forests were not more similar to one another. Although larger (1500 to 6880 ha), more intact forests contained significantly more tree species (108–120 species/0.1 ha) than smaller (30 to 780 ha) ones (56–87 species/0.1 ha), each reserve had unique combinations of more common species, and contained high proportions of species not found in the others. Results thus suggest that protecting multiple cloud forest patches within this narrow elevational band is essential to conserve landscape‐level tree diversity, and that even small forest reserves contribute significantly to biodiversity conservation. These findings can be applied to create management plans to conserve and restore cloud forests in the Andes and tropical montane cloud forests elsewhere.     

The importance of conserving biodiversity outside of protected areas in mediterranean ecosystems

Mediterranean-type ecosystems constitute one of the rarest terrestrial biomes and yet they are extraordinarily biodiverse. Home to over 250 million people, the five regions where these ecosystems are found have climate and coastal conditions that make them highly desirable human habitats. The current conservation landscape does not reflect the mediterranean biome's rarity and its importance for plant endemism. Habitat conversion will clearly outpace expansion of formal protected-area networks, and conservationists must augment this traditional strategy with new approaches to sustain the mediterranean biota. Using regional scale datasets, we determine the area of land in each of the five regions that is protected, converted (e.g., to urban or industrial), impacted (e.g., intensive, cultivated agriculture), or lands that we consider to have conservation potential. The latter are natural and semi-natural lands that are unprotected (e.g., private range lands) but sustain numerous native species and associated habitats. Chile has the greatest proportion of its land (75%) in this category and California-Mexico the least (48%). To illustrate the potential for achieving mediterranean biodiversity conservation on these lands, we use species-area curves generated from ecoregion scale data on native plant species richness and vertebrate species richness. For example, if biodiversity could be sustained on even 25% of existing unprotected, natural and semi-natural lands, we estimate that the habitat of more than 6,000 species could be represented. This analysis suggests that if unprotected natural and semi-natural lands are managed in a manner that allows for persistence of native species, we can realize significant additional biodiversity gains. Lasting biodiversity protection at the scale needed requires unprecedented collaboration among stakeholders to promote conservation both inside and outside of traditional protected areas, including on lands where people live and work.     

Assessing the effectiveness of protected areas for conserving range-restricted rain forest butterflies in Sabah,Borneo

Rain forests on Borneo support exceptional concentrations of endemic insect biodiversity, but many of these forest-dependent species are threatened by land-use change. Totally protected areas (TPAs) of forest are key for conserving biodiversity, and we examined the effectiveness of the current TPA network for conserving range-restricted butterflies in Sabah (Malaysian Borneo). We found that mean diurnal temperature range and precipitation of the wettest quarter of the year were the most important predictors of butterfly distributions (N = 77 range-restricted species), and that species richness increased with elevation and aboveground forest carbon. On average across all species, TPAs were effective at conserving ~43% of species’ ranges, but encompassed only ~40% of areas with high species richness (i.e., containing at least 50% of our study species). The TPA network also included only 33%–40% of areas identified as high priority for conserving range-restricted species, as determined by a systematic conservation prioritization analysis. Hence, the current TPA network is reasonably effective at conserving range-restricted butterflies, although considerable areas of high species richness (6,565 km²) and high conservation priority (11,152–12,531 km²) are not currently protected. Sabah's remaining forests, and the range-restricted species they support, are under continued threat from agricultural expansion and urban development, and our study highlights important areas of rain forest that require enhanced protection.     

Ant diversity partitioning across spatial scales: Ecological processes and implications for conserving Tropical Dry Forests

Several ecological and evolutionary processes can drive changes in diversity at different spatial scales. To determine the scale at which these processes are most influential, we hypothesized that (i) broad‐scale differences between ecoregions had greater influence on ant species richness and species turnover than local differences among fragments within ecoregions; and (ii) the degree of dissimilarity in ant species composition is larger between Tropical Dry Forest fragments and the surrounding vegetations than among Tropical Dry Forests located in different ecoregions, indicating that extant Tropical Dry Forests are relicts of a broader distribution of this vegetation. To examine ant diversity patterns, we built a nested hierarchical design on three spatial scales, ranging from fragments (local scale), Tropical Dry Forest + surroundings vegetation (landscape scale) and Brazilian ecoregions (regional scale). We used 450 sampling units (45 sampling units × two fragments × five ecoregions = 450). A null model based on the sample was used to identify variations in the random distribution across spatial scales. Spatial partitioning of ant diversity showed that observed β₁ diversity (between fragments) and β₂ diversity (among ecoregions) were higher than expected by chance. When the partitioning was analysed separately for each region, the observed β₁ diversity (Tropical Dry Forest and surrounding vegetation) was higher than expected by the null hypothesis in all ecoregions of Brazil. Based on species composition and diversity patterns, we stress the importance of creating more protected areas throughout the coverage area of Tropical Dry Forests, favouring a more efficient conservation process.     

Urbanisation tolerance and the loss of avian diversity

Urbanisation is considered an important driver of current biodiversity loss, but the underlying causes are not fully understood. It is generally assumed that this loss reflects the fact that most organisms do not tolerate well the environmental alterations associated with urbanisation. Nevertheless, current evidence is inconclusive and the alternative that the biodiversity loss is the result of random mechanisms has never been evaluated. Analysing changes in abundance between urbanised environments and their non‐urbanised surroundings of > 800 avian species from five continents, we show here that although random processes account for part of the species loss associated with urbanisation, much of the loss is associated with a lack of appropriate adaptations of most species for exploiting resources and avoiding risks of the urban environments. These findings have important conservation implications because the extinction of species with particular features should have higher impact on biodiversity and ecosystem function than a random loss.     

Combined effects of landscape composition and heterogeneity on farmland avian diversity

Conserving biodiversity on farmland is an essential element of worldwide efforts for reversing the global biodiversity decline. Common approaches involve improving the natural component of the landscape by increasing the amount of natural and seminatural habitats (e.g., hedgerows, woodlots, and ponds) or improving the production component of the landscape by increasing the amount of biodiversity‐friendly crops. Because these approaches may negatively impact on economic output, it was suggested that an alternative might be to enhance the diversity (compositional heterogeneity) or the spatial complexity (configurational heterogeneity) of land cover types, without necessarily changing composition. Here, we develop a case study to evaluate these ideas, examining whether managing landscape composition or heterogeneity, or both, would be required to achieve conservation benefits on avian diversity in open Mediterranean farmland. We surveyed birds in farmland landscapes of southern Portugal, before (1995–1997) and after (2010–2012) the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform of 2003, and related spatial and temporal variation in bird species richness to variables describing the composition, and the compositional and configurational heterogeneity, of the natural and production components of the landscape. We found that the composition of the production component had the strongest effects on avian diversity, with a particularly marked effect on the richness of farmland and steppe bird species. Composition of the natural component was also influential, mainly affecting the richness of woodland/shrubland species. Although there were some effects of compositional and configurational heterogeneity, these were much weaker and inconsistent than those of landscape composition. Overall, we suggest that conservation efforts in our area should focus primarily on the composition of the production component, by striving to maximize the prevalence of biodiversity‐friendly crops. This recommendation probably applies to other areas such as ours, where a range of species of conservation concern is strongly associated with crop habitats.