Arterial supply and venous drainage of the brain of the black bear (Ursus americanus). II. Intracranial microvasculature

A morphological study of the intracranial microvasculature of the Black bear (Ursus americanus) using vascular casts was undertaken. The object was to provide basic information regarding structural modifications of the microvasculature that might provide insight into the ability to cope with low blood flow states that occur during winter sleep. Vascular casts were prepared from 6 animals. The microvasculature of the brain disclosed characteristic features of the small vessels in mammals, including vascular sphincters of two types and numerous arterial and arteriolar anastomoses.     

Cortical microvasculature of the feline kidney

Scanning electron microscopy of corrosion casts was used to study the ultrastructural morphology of the microcirculation in the feline kidney. The technique used enabled us to examine the renal microvasculature by obtaining stable and consistent replicas of the vasculature. Corrosion casts were evaluated at three different levels, namely subcapsular, midcortical and the corticomedullary junction. The interlobular arteries, given off by the arcuate arteries, coursed through the cortex in a radial fashion and afferent arterioles were given off at varying intervals. Large afferent arterioles formed the glomerular capillary lobules which consisted of very tortuous capillaries. Smaller-diameter efferent arterioles were formed at the vascular pole and ran in the opposite direction to the afferent arteriole. The peritubular plexuses were seen as interconnecting capillaries at both the subcapsular, midcortical and corticomedullary junction. Numerous efferent arterioles, derived from the corticomedullary glomeruli, were seen as large, radiating vessels running towards the renal papilla.     

Renal vasculature of the trout demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy, compared with canine glomerular vessels.

In order to gain additional information regarding renal circulatory patterns, we have used both ink and resin injections to study the arterial supply to the mesonephric kidney of trout. Arterial injections through the dorsal aorta with ink were made for histological preparations in which the length, termination and relationship of glomerular vessels were examined. Similar injections with methyl methacrylate were made in preparation of corrosion casts to provide us with gross replicas of the aortic branches to the kidney as well as casts of glomerular structure for scanning electron microscopy. The sequence of vessels through which arterial blood passed to the renal corpuscle and ultimately to the uriniferous tubules was traced. Each afferent arteriole was found to terminate in three to six branches which formed anastomosing circuits of capillaries; these vessels reunited at the hilum to form a single efferent arteriole. The efferent arterioles in trun traveled a short distance to peritubular capillary beds and sinusoids. Morphological evidence was found for preglomerular sphincter-like action only. The glomerular vessels were found to be similar to, although less complex than, those of the outer and mid-cortical regions of the dog kidney.     

Scanning electron microscopy of microcorrosion casts of the vascular bed in the skin of the spotted salamander,Salamandra salamandra L.

Microcorrosion casts of blood vessels in the skin of the spotted salamander, Salamandra salamandra L., were studied using scanning eletron microscopy. The investigated vessels include a subepidermal network of respiratory capillaries and the vessels of poison glands. A hypothesis is proposed, according to which both types of vascular beds possess a common origin. Probable factors involved in the differentiation of the primary netword of the subepidermal vessels in larvae are indicated and speculation concerning the supposed mosaic type of circulation in the capillaries of the subepidermal respiratory bed is presented.     

Microvascularization on collared peccary placenta: a microvascular cast study [corrected] in late pregnancy

The microvascularization of the collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) placenta was studied by vascular casts and immunolocalization of α-smooth muscle actin and vimentin, to identify the three dimensional organization and vascular flow interrelation in the microvasculature between the maternal and fetal compartments of the placentae. The immunolocalization of vimentin in the vascular endothelium and in the smooth muscle cells of blood vessels showed indented capillaries along the uterine epithelium and the trophoblast at the sides of complementary maternal and fetal microfolds, or rugae. This confers the three-dimensional structure observed in vascular casts. On the maternal side, casts demonstrated uterine folds coated by with primary and secondary ridges, and by areolae dispersed between these ridges. The arteriole runs through the center/middle of ridges, branching at the top into a microvascular network wall in a basket-like fashion. At the base of these baskets venules were formed. On the fetal side, arterioles branched centrally in the fetal rugae into a capillary network in a bulbous form, complementary to the opposite maternal depressions forming the baskets. At the base of the bulbous protrusions, the fetal venules arise. The blood vessel orientation in the materno-fetal interface of the placentae of collared peccaries suggests a blood flow pattern of the type countercurrent to cross current. The same pattern has been reported in domestic swine demonstrating that, even after 38 million years, the Tayassuidae and Suidae families exhibit similar placental morphology, which is here characterized at the microvascular level.     

Follicular microvasculature in the porcine ovary

The microvasculature of porcine ovaries, with special regard to the follicles in the interstitial-stromal tissue, was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of vascular corrosion casts. Porcine ovaries displayed several coiled arteries in the hilus and many branches with small diameters and a tightly spiraling configuration in the cortical areas. However, small arterioles became straight before entering vascular complexes of follicles and finally divided into capillaries. Vascular baskets of various sizes (150-9,900 micro m in diameter) and architecture related to follicles in various developmental stages were observed in the ovarian cortex. Small follicles (150-300 micro m in diameter) began with a polygonal meshwork of a few large capillary meshes and developed to an obvious spherical microvascular network with a thin single layer of capillaries when reaching 500-700 micro m in diameter. The microvascular architecture of follicles 1,000-2,000 micro m in diameter developed further and had a three-layer vascular plexus. With a diameter of more than 2,000 micro m, the microvasculature of antral follicles was arranged as an inner vascular plexus of about 25 micro m, a middle plexus of about 100 micro m, and an outer capillary plexus of about 30 micro m in thickness. The present observations indicate that follicular vascular baskets of diverse sizes and architecture in various developmental stages support the gradual increase of follicular blood flow during follicle growth in the pig.     

Contractile proteins in pericytes. II. Immunocytochemical evidence for the presence of two isomyosins in graded concentrations

This paper describes the localization of isomyosins in the pericytes of four rat microvascular beds: heart, diaphragm, pancreas, and the intestinal mucosa, by use of immunoperoxidase techniques and IgGs specific for either nonmuscle or smooth muscle isoforms. Based on the semiquantitative nature of the peroxidatic reaction, we concluded that the amount and distribution of these isoforms vary with the microvascular bed and also with vascular segments within the same bed. In the pericytes of small capillaries, nonmuscle isomyosin is the predominant form, whereas the smooth muscle isomyosin is present in very low concentration. A reversed relationship is found in the pericytes associated with larger capillaries and postcapillary venules. These results, taken together with previous findings on actin (Herman, I., and P. A. D'Amore, 1983, J. Cell Biol. 97:278a), tropomyosin (Joyce, N. C., M. F. Haire, and G. E. Palade, 1985, J. Cell Biol. 100:1379-1386), and cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase (Joyce, N., P. DeCamilli, and J. Boyles, 1984, Microvasc. Res. 28:206-219), indicate that pericytes contain proteins essential for contraction in higher concentration than any other cells associated with the microvasculature, except smooth muscle cells. Pericytes appear to be, therefore, cells differentiated for a contractile function within the microvasculature.     

Microvascular patterns in the blubber of shallow and deep diving odontocetes

Blubber, a specialized form of subdermal adipose tissue, surrounds marine mammal bodies. Typically, adipose tissue is perfused by capillaries but information on blubber vascularization is lacking. This study's goals were to: 1) describe and compare the microvasculature (capillaries, microarterioles, and microvenules) of blubber across odontocete species; 2) compare microvasculature of blubber to adipose tissue; and 3) examine relationships between blubber's lipid composition and its microvasculature. Percent microvascularity, distribution, branching pattern, and diameter of microvessels were determined from images of histochemically stained blubber sections from shallow‐diving bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), deeper‐diving pygmy sperm whales (Kogia breviceps), deep‐diving beaked whales (Mesoplodon densirostris; Ziphius cavirostris), and the subdermal adipose tissue of domestic pigs (Sus scrofa). Tursiops blubber showed significant stratification in percent microvascularity among the superficial, middle, and deep layers and had a significantly higher percent microvascularity than all other animals analyzed, in which the microvasculature was more uniformly distributed. The percent microvasculature of Kogia blubber was lower than that of Tursiops but higher than that of beaked whales and the subdermal adipose tissue of domestic pigs. Tursiops had the most microvascular branching. Microvessel diameter was relatively uniform in all species. There were no clear patterns associating microvascular and lipid characteristics. The microvascular characteristics of the superficial layer of blubber resembled the adipose tissue of terrestrial mammals, suggesting some conservation of microvascular patterns in mammalian adipose tissue. The middle and deep layers of blubber, particularly in Tursiops, showed the greatest departure from typical mammalian microvascular arrangement. Factors such as metabolics or thermoregulation may be influencing the microvasculature in these layers. © J. Morphol., 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Effect of vasopressin on myocardial capillary recruitment and coronary blood flow in the anesthetized rabbit.

The effects of infusion of arginine vasopressin (20 mU.kg-1.min-1) on coronary blood flow and the proportion of the coronary microvasculature perfused was studied in rabbit myocardium. Fluorescein isothiocyanate--dextran was injected into anesthetized open-chest rabbits to identify the perfused vessels and an alkaline phosphatase stain was employed to locate the total microvasculature. Coronary blood flow (radioactive microspheres) was studied in separate groups of rabbits. Vasopressin infusion caused bradycardia (243 +/- 19 to 165 +/- 22 beats/min, mean +/- SD) and an increase in mean blood pressure (92 +/- 18 to 104 +/- 12 mmHg) (1 mmHg = 133.32 Pa). Coronary blood flow decreased significantly with vasopressin from 209 +/- 68 to 97 +/- 36 mL.min-1.100 g-1. The proportion of the arteriolar bed per millimeter squared perfused decreased significantly after vasopressin from 54 +/- 13 to 44 +/- 21%, while the percentage of capillaries per millimeter squared increased significantly from 57 +/- 6 to 67 +/- 11%. There were no subepicardial versus subendocardial differences in any measured parameter. Thus, both coronary blood flow and the proportion of the arteriolar bed perfused decreased with vasopressin. However, compensation occurred in that the proportion of capillaries perfused increased. This indicated an independent level of control of the coronary arteriolar and capillary beds. These microvascular changes may help to maintain oxygen supply-demand balance with vasopressin in the heart.     

Morphological Differentiation of the Microvasculature During Follicular Development, Ovulation and Luteinization of Mouse Ovaries

The chronological changes of the microvasculature during follicular development, ovulation and luteinization of mouse ovaries were examined by observation of serial histological sections, lectin angiographs and resin-corrosion casts. Graafian follicles possessing oocytes with germinal vesicles were surrounded by a few layers of basket-like capillary wreath adjacent to the follicular basement membrane. Just before ovulation 11–12 hr after hCG administration, some theca cells differentiated into hypertrophic cells, and the follicular basement membrane underwent fragmentation. Then the capillaries within the theca interna became dilated, and hyperpermeable and appeared to be injured. The capillary wreath extended into the follicle via the hypertrophied theca interna. After ovulation, the follicular wall became markedly edematous. Capillary branches invaded the granulosa cell layer of the ruptured follicle from the region of extravasation to form an intricate capillary network. The capillary network occupied the whole corpus luteum until 24 hr after hCG administration.     

A unified hypothesis for the genesis of cerebral malaria: sequestration, inflammation and hemostasis leading to microcirculatory dysfunction

A unifying hypothesis for the genesis of cerebral malaria proposes that parasite antigens (released by replication in blood, surface molecules on parasitized erythrocytes, or merozoites) activate platelets that, in turn, contribute to the activation of the inflammatory response and increased levels of endothelial cell adhesion molecules (eCAMs). Increased levels of eCAMs result in further parasitized-erythrocyte sequestration and marked local inflammation that might disrupt the brain microvasculature, which cannot be repaired by the hemostasis system because of its procoagulant state. Disruption of the brain microvasculature can result in vascular leak and/or hemorrhaging into the brain; similar processes can occur in other vascular beds, including the lung. The blockage of functional capillaries by parasitized and/or unparasitized erythrocytes with decreased deformability or rosettes is also a key interaction between hemostasis and mechanical obstruction leading to pathogenesis. The events resulting in the development of cerebral malaria complications are multi-factorial, encompassing a dynamic interaction between three processes, thereby explaining the complexity of this deadly syndrome.     

Microvasculature of the bear heart demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy

Morphological features of the coronary microvasculature were examined in ten Black bears (Ursus americanus). Tissue samples were collected for scanning electron microscopy from five animals, and vascular casts of the coronary vessels were prepared from five. Each portion of the microvasculature examined had specific morphological characteristics which may contribute to the control of blood flow. All indications from the present study suggest that the structure of the coronary microvasculature in the Black bear is similar to that of mammalian species previously examined.     

Segmental differentiations of cell junctions in the vascular endothelium. The microvasculature

Small vascular units consisting of an arteriole, its capillaries, and the emerging venule (ACV units) were identified in the rat omentum and mesentery. They were fixed in situ and processed for electron microscopy either as whole units or as dissected segments. Systematic examination of the latter (in thin sections, as well as in freeze-cleaved preparations) showed that the intercellular junctions of the vascular endothelium vary characteristically from one segment to another in the microvasculature. In arterioles, the endothelium has continuous and elaborate tight junctions with interpolated large gap junctions. The capillary endothelium is provided with tight junctions formed by either branching or staggered strands; gap junctions are absent at this level. The pericytic venules exhibit loosely organized endothelial junctions with discontinuous low-profile ridges and grooves, usually devoid of particles. No gap junctions were found in these vessels. The endothelium of muscular venules has the same type of junctions (discontinuous ridges and grooves of low profile); in addition, it displays isolated gap junctions of smaller size and lower frequency than in arterioles. The term communicating junction (macula communicans) is proposed as a substitute for gap junctions, since the latter is inappropriate, in general, and confusing in the special case of the vascular endothelium.     

VEGF-dependent plasticity of fenestrated capillaries in the normal adult microvasculature

Unlike during development, blood vessels in the adult are generally thought not to require VEGF for normal function. However, VEGF is a survival factor for many tumor vessels, and there are clues that some normal blood vessels may also depend on VEGF. In this study, we sought to identify which, if any, vascular beds in adult mice depend on VEGF for survival. Mice were treated with a small-molecule VEGF receptor (VEGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor or soluble VEGFRs for 1-3 wk. Blood vessels were assessed using immunohistochemistry or scanning or transmission electron microscopy. In a study of 17 normal organs after VEGF inhibition, we found significant capillary regression in pancreatic islets, thyroid, adrenal cortex, pituitary, choroid plexus, small-intestinal villi, and epididymal adipose tissue. The amount of regression was dose dependent and varied from organ to organ, with a maximum of 68% in thyroid, but was less in normal organs than in tumors in RIP-Tag2-transgenic mice or in Lewis lung carcinoma. VEGF-dependent capillaries were fenestrated, expressed high levels of both VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3, and had normal pericyte coverage. Surviving capillaries in affected organs had fewer fenestrations and less VEGFR expression. All mice appeared healthy, but distinct physiological changes, including more efficient blood glucose handling, accompanied some regimens of VEGF inhibition. Strikingly, most capillaries in the thyroid grew back within 2 wk after cessation of treatment for 1 wk. Our findings of VEGF dependency of normal fenestrated capillaries and rapid regrowth after regression demonstrate the plasticity of the adult microvasculature.     

Renal vascular changes in hydronephrosis in rats: scanning electron microscopy of resin casts of glomerular capillaries

Vascular changes in the hydronephrotic glomeruli of rats were examined using corrosion casts, India ink injection and histological methods. In severe cases, the diameter of the glomerular capillary conglomerations decreased to 40-90 microns as a result of glomerular atrophy. The capillaries of these glomeruli also had reduced diameters, and were strangulated and torn off to varying degrees. The intact capillary network of the renal medulla was destroyed and the normal alignment of capillaries parallel to the tubules was lost. These morphological characteristics may account in part for the difficulty in glomerular capillary blood circulation.     

Cholinergic nerve fibres associated with the microvessels of the human cerebral cortex: a study based on monoclonal immunocytochemistry for choline acetyltrasferase

The distribution of cholinergic nerve fibres associated with the microvasculature of the human parietal cerebral cortex was investigated by immunocytochemistry, employing monoclonal antibodies against choline acetyl-transferase, the acetylcholine-synthesizing enzyme. The results revealed strongly immunoreactive nerve fibres in the tunica adventitia of arterioles penetrating the superficial cortical layers from the pial vasculature. Networks of stained nerve fibres were seen within the tunica muscularis of the radially directed arterioles that cross the intermediate and deep cortical laminae, and of their transverse and recurrent branches. Tiny positive nerve fibres were also seen around the cortex capillaries, some reaching the endothelial cells. The morphological data support the involvement of acetylcholine in microvasculature local regulation, possibly with a differentiated role in the arterioles and capillaries.     

Peripheral vascularization of the dermal laminae of the equine hoof

The vascular architecture of the dermal laminae was studied by scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion casts. Ultrastructurally, the laminar vasculature consisted of arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins, arranged in a sheet-like network. Through the laminae, arterioles ran parallel to the solar surface and branched at two levels to form a continuous arteriolar arcade, parallel to the hoof wall. Capillaries originating from these arcades formed hairpin loops joining the marginal vein prior to forming an axially situated venous network. Additional capillaries were also given off by the arterioles, forming an abaxially arranged capillary plexus.     

Three-dimensional aspects of blood vessels in thyroids from normal,low iodine diet-treated,TSH-treated,and PTU-treated rats

Summary Three-dimensional images of blood vessels in thyroid glands from normal, low iodine diet-treated, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)-treated and propylthiouracil (PTU)-treated rats were investigated by use of the corrosion-cast method. The vascular casts made by the injection of methacrylate resin were observed with the scanning electron microscope. In normal animals, each follicle is surrounded by a clearly defined basket-like capillary network, which is generally independent of adjacent networks, though a few anastomoses or common capillaries are sometimes seen. In low iodine diet-treated or TSH-treated animals, the capillaries in the basket-like network become markedly dilated and fuse with one another. Though the vascular casts of PTU-treated animals are similar to those of low iodine diet-treated or TSH-treated ones in some aspects, most basket-like networks become distorted and irregular in shape, and the capillaries are heterogeneously dilated and show many buds, branches and anastomoses. We consider that these peculiar changes in the thyroid of the PTU-treated animals are due not only to the elevation of serum TSH but also to other unknown factors. It is clear that the distribution and morphology of the thyroid capillaries are extremely affected and changed by functional states of the gland.This study was supported in part by grant from the Research Fund of the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, Japan     

Microvascular architecture of the pregnant rabbit oviduct

Methyl-methacrylate vascular corrosion casts of the oviducts were prepared in 7 rabbits which were 2-3 weeks pregnant. Scanning electron microscopy of the acrylic casts revealed little change in tubal microvascular connections when compared with control oviducts. Venous distension in the isthmic subserosal venous plexus, ampullary subserosal vasculature and in the fimbrial core was substantially greater than that observed in controls. These changes are interpreted as indicating a sensitivity of tubal microvasculature to the increased levels of circulating placental hormones in pregnancy. The implications of this interpretation in the role of tubal microvasculature at the time of ovulation are discussed.     

Studies on the microvascularization of the digestive tract by scanning electron microscopy of vascular corrosion casts. 1. Large intestine in rats and guinea pigs.

The colonic microvascularization of 10 adult Sprague-Dawley rats and guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus was studied by scanning electron microscopy of microvascular corrosion casts. The tunica muscularis is supplied by branches of the submucosal arteriolar plexus, according to the arrangement of muscle layers, longitudinally and transversally arranged capillaries are distinguished. The mucosal capillaries show a honeycomb pattern and mimic the openings of the mucosal glands. Parallel to the luminal aspect of the large intestine, the mucosal capillary loops often arise from the submucosal arterioles at the most abluminal aspect of the mucosa; however, some arterioles end just subjacent to these capillaries. The submucosal veins are located just subjacent to the capillaries of the lamina propria. The rat and guinea pig colonic vascular architecture revealed no differences, neither did the capillary density in different parts of the large intestine.