Plant remains from a Bell Beaker site in Switzerland, and the beginnings of Triticum spelta (spelt) cultivation in Europe

Little is known of the archaeobotany of the Bell Beaker period. The village of Cortaillod/Sur les Rochettes-est in Switzerland is one of the first settlements of this date discovered so far; and one of the few sites where systematic archaeobotanical research could be undertaken. The 114 features, mainly postholes, produced 5080 charred plant macrofossils. The composition of the cereal spectrum was dominated by hulled wheats and notably by Triticum spelta (spelt). Other important components were Triticum dicoccum (emmer) and T. monococcum (einkorn), and probably also Hordeum (barley). The abundance of spelt represents a fundamental change compared with the plant finds from earlier sites of the region. The origin of this cereal species is discussed in the light of recent results of cytogenetic and molecular research.     

Vegetation history and agriculture in the cover-sand area west of Breda (province of Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands)

Botanical investigation of archaeological sites situated in the northwest of the region bounded by the rivers Maas, Scheldt and Demer (‘MSD region’), west of the city of Breda, has provided a great deal of evidence about the landscape and its use in the period between 2000 b.c. and a.d. 1500. From pollen analysis, it appears that this cover-sand area gradually lost its woodlands through human activity after the beginning of the Bronze Age (ca. 2000 b.c.). Patches of woodland did survive there, however, until the early Middle Ages. In contrast to the cover-sand area in the vicinity of ’s-Hertogenbosch and Oss-Ussen in the northeast of the MSD region, the first large heathlands in the Breda area did not evolve until the early Middle Ages. In late prehistory, land use in this area was not much different from that in the micro-region of ’s-Hertogenbosch and Oss-Ussen. In the Bronze Age, Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare (hulled six-row barley) and Triticum dicoccon (emmer wheat) were grown. During the Iron Age, Panicum miliaceum (common millet) and T. spelta (spelt wheat) were introduced, but these crops disappeared during the Roman period. The Roman period is remarkable because of the lack of any Mediterranean culinary herbs or exotic fruits. Only pollen of Juglans regia (walnut), found around the transition from the Roman period to the early Middle Ages, indicates the introduction of an exotic tree into the region. From the early Middle Ages onwards, Secale cereale (rye) was the most important cereal, which was grown as a winter crop. In the course of the Middle Ages, arable weeds of the Sclerantho annui-Arnoseridetum plant community appeared, which is associated with the continuous growing of rye.     

Key Features of Cereal Genome Organization as Revealed by the Use of Cytosine Methylation-Sensitive Restriction Endonucleases

Unlike mammalian genomes, cereal (Gramineae) genomes exhibit little suppression of CpG dinucleotides. In cereal genomes, however, most of the numerous potential recognition sites for CpG methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes are methylated. Analysis of cereal genomic libraries and of regions flanking genes indicates that unmethylated NotI sites are useful landmarks for regions containing genes/single-copy sequences. Studies of a rye chromosome arm indicate that its pericentromeric region has a reduced density of unmethylated NotI (and MluI) sites and therefore of genes. Unmethylated MluI and NruI sites are distributed nonrandomly in the genomes of wheat, barley, and rice. Analysis of the genomic blocks defined by these sites in wheat and barley indicates that they are most likely to have arisen by amplification. These observations form the basis of a proposed model for the organization and evolution of the wheat, barley, and rice genomes.     

Human impacts on Persoonia falcata. Perspectives on post-contact vegetation change in the Keep River region, Australia, from contemporary vegetation surveys

Persoonia falcata R. Br. and Buchanania obovata Engl. seeds are consistently preserved in abundance from archaeological sites across the Keep River region from 3500 b.p. up until the contact period. Although artefacts continued to be deposited after establishment of the pastoral industry, remains of these two plant species disappear in the upper levels of all excavated deposits. The contemporary vegetation in the vicinity of these sites appears to lack P. falcata, although B. obovata remains in abundance. These observations raise questions regarding (1) the impact of changing land-use and fire regimes, (2) the impact of Aboriginal land management on particular plant species and (3) the reorientation of Aboriginal site use across the region after settlement. These issues are explored in this paper using a comparative analysis of stand structure of the contemporary vegetation around previously excavated sites, as well as from published information on recent regional fire history. Results show improved recruitment of P. falcata (that is, seedlings are recruited into adult life stages) in the only site where Aboriginal people have re-introduced customary management. Both the timing of burning and significant unburnt periods appear important to the post-contact decline and also in the future success of populations of P. falcata in the region.     

Grains from ear to ear: the morphology of spelt and free-threshing wheat from Roman Mursa (Osijek), Croatia

Cereals were a significant part of the Roman diet, yet knowledge about their cultivation, distribution and consumption in certain regions is particularly lacking. In Europe, studies generally suggest that from the Iron Age to the Roman period there was a reduction in barley cultivation, an increase in spelt over emmer, a preference for free-threshing wheat over glume wheats, as well as the increased cultivation of rye and oats. Up till now, there was little evidence on crop cultivation in Croatia, but the discovery of around 24,000 cereal grains from the oven of a 2nd-4th c. ad Roman villa in the modern town of Osijek provides important insights into diet and subsistence in the Roman province of Pannonia. Here, the dominance of free-threshing wheat, spelt and rye with only a relatively small amount of other cereals, chaff and weeds corresponds well with this pattern seen elsewhere in Europe. The relatively clean grain deposit suggests that this sample represents processed grain ready for final food preparation and consumption at the villa. The morphological variation and overlap seen between the carbonised spelt and free-threshing wheat grains, as well as the identification of ‘stunted’ cereal grains, is also discussed.

     

Late Celtic and early Roman plant remains from the oppidum of Bibracte, Mont Beuvray (Burgundy, France)

Two single assemblages of cereals and chaff from the oppidum Bibracte, (Burgundy, France), give evidence of cereal trade, food supply and crop processing in late Celtic and early Roman times. The first deposit consists mainly of Triticum dicoccon chaff which was buried in a wooden box near the sanctuary of La Terrasse. The second assemblage was a store of different wheats and barley excavated in a Roman cellar at the Pature du Couvent. The analyses of these finds are presented, and recent archaeobotanical research at Mont Beuvray is summarized.     

Continuity and changes in plant resources during the Neolithic period in western Switzerland

The Neolithic and Bronze Age (4400-1570 B.C.) pile dwellings of Concise-sous-Colachoz on the shore of Lake Neuchatel (Canton of Vaud, western Switzerland), known as an archaeological site for more than 140 years, were recently re-investigated due to rescue excavations. Plant macrofossil analyses were done for several Neolithic occupation phases (3868-2440 B.C. the Cortaillod classique, Cortaillod moyen, Cortaillod tardif and Auvernier periods) with a focus on cereal remains, and additionally, archaeological deposits dating to the Cortaillod moyen culture (3710-3677 B.C.) were studied in detail. The preliminary study of cereal macrofossil remains from all the mentioned Neolithic phases show that the most important cereals were Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum (naked wheat), T. monococcum (einkorn) and Hordeum vulgare (barley). The preferences for specific crops did obviously not alter significantly through time, but, extraordinarily, significant amounts of einkorn continued to be grown for at least 1400 years during the Neolithic period. Other cultivated plants were Pisum sativum (pea), Linum usitatissimum (flax), and Papaver somniferum (opium poppy). Additionally to the seeds, capsule fragments of opium poppy were found in the Cortaillod moyen deposits. These represent the first finds of uncharred capsule fragments in Europe. Compared with other central European sites, opium poppy was very common during the 38th and 37th cent. B.C. and obviously less appreciated towards the end of the Neolithic in the western part of Switzerland. In central Switzerland the trends seem different: there opium poppy was mainly used during the Late Neolithic period. This may be due to cultural differences within contemporaneous human societies. Wild fruits which were collected as plant resources during the Cortaillod moyen period included Prunus spinosa (sloe), Cornus sanguinea (dogwood), Malus sylvestris (apple), Rubus idaeus/caesius/fruticosus (raspberry/dewberry/blackberry), Fragaria vesca (wild strawberry), Rosa sp. (hip), Quercus sp. (acorn), Corylus avellana (hazelnut), and Fagus sylvatica (beechnut), among others. Compared with other Neolithic sites in westem and central Switzerland the local population of Concise-sous-Colachoz used few sloes, while dogwood fruits were in use throughout the Neolithic period at Lake Neuchatel. Received September 4, 2001 / Accepted May 13, 2002     

Punica granatum L. (pomegranates) from early Roman contexts in Vindonissa (Switzerland)

At the later legionary camp of Vindonissa, early Roman (Augustan-Claudian) structures were excavated during a rescue excavation between 1996 and 1998. In phase 2 (10 B.C. until 0), seven in situ carbonised wooden barrels, dug into the ground, were found. They belonged to a rather large building which was most probably used as storage facility. Two of the barrels contained, in the bottom layers, several hundred seeds and pericarp fragments of Punica granatum L. (pomegranates). A large number of other "exotic" plant taxa such as olive, walnut, pine, pistacio, peach, cherry (and probably date) were also found in rather large quantities. Above all, the finds of pomegranates are unique: they are the first finds of this Mediterranean fruit in regions north of the Alps. The origin, use, and other archaeological finds of the pomegranate in the Roman period are discussed. A comparison with other early Roman spectra shows that such large quantities of "exotic" useful plants are mainly present at larger military sites like the legionary camps of Novaesium or Oberaden. It must also be suggested that the pre-camp phases in Vindonissa already had a military charaeter, although this is not at all clear from the other archaeological finds. The precise role of the site is still a matter of debate. Received November 22, 2001 / Accepted February 19, 2002     

Stable Isotope and Trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd Ct. AD) - Implications for Differences in Diet

The gladiator cemetery discovered in Ephesus (Turkey) in 1993 dates to the 2^nd and 3^rd century AD. The aim of this study is to reconstruct diverse diet, social stratification, and migration of the inhabitants of Roman Ephesus and the distinct group of gladiators. Stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur isotope analysis were applied, and inorganic bone elements (strontium, calcium) were determined. In total, 53 individuals, including 22 gladiators, were analysed. All individuals consumed C₃ plants like wheat and barley as staple food. A few individuals show indication of consumption of C₄ plants. The δ¹³C values of one female from the gladiator cemetery and one gladiator differ from all other individuals. Their δ³⁴S values indicate that they probably migrated from another geographical region or consumed different foods. The δ¹⁵N values are relatively low in comparison to other sites from Roman times. A probable cause for the depletion of ¹⁵N in Ephesus could be the frequent consumption of legumes. The Sr/Ca-ratios of the gladiators were significantly higher than the values of the contemporary Roman inhabitants. Since the Sr/Ca-ratio reflects the main Ca-supplier in the diet, the elevated values of the gladiators might suggest a frequent use of a plant ash beverage, as mentioned in ancient texts.     

Transgenic barley expressing a fungal xylanase gene in the endosperm of the developing grains

The feasibility of producing plant cell wall polysaccharide-hydrolysing feed enzymes in the endosperm of barley grain was investigated. The coding region of a modified xylanase gene (xynA) from the rumen fungus, Neocallimastix patriciarum, linked with an endosperm-specific promoter from cereal storage protein genes was introduced into barley by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Twenty-four independently transformed barley lines with the xylanase gene were produced and analysed. The fungal xylanase was produced in the developing endosperm under the control of either the rice glutelin B-1 (GluB-1) or barley B1 hordein (Hor2-4) promoter. The rice GluB-1 promoter provided an apparently higher expression level of recombinant proteins in barley grain than the barley Hor2-4 promoter in both transient and stable expression experiments. In particular, the mean value for the fungal xylanase activity driven by the GluB-1 promoter in the mature grains of transgenic barley was more than twice that with the Hor2-4 promoter. Expression of the xylanase transgene under these endosperm-specific promoters was not observed in the leaf, stem and root tissues. Accumulation of the fungal xylanase in the developing grains of transgenic barley followed the pattern of storage protein deposition. The xylanase was stably maintained in the grain during grain maturation and desiccation and post-harvest storage. These results indicate that the cereal grain expression system may provide an economic means for large scale production of feed enzymes in the future.     

Immunogold localization of THRGP-like epitopes in the haustorial interface of obligate,biotrophic fungi on monocots

Summary Immunoelectron microscopy was used to determine the subcellular distribution of threonine-hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein (THRGP) epitopes in host-parasite interactions between obligate, biotrophic fungi and cereals. Infection sites of stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp.tritici) and leaf rust (Puccinia recondita) on primary leaves of wheat (Triticum aestivum), as well as of powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis f. sp.hordei) on coleoptiles of barley (Hordeum vulgare), wete probed with a polyclonal antiserum to maize THRGP. A few immunogold particles were found over the cell walls of wheat mesophyll tissue and barley coleoptile epidermis. Unlike previous examples in dicot plants, no enhanced accumulation of THRGP was observed in cereal cell walls adjacent to sites of pathogen ingress. Instead, the most pronounced accumulation of THRGP-like molecules occurred over the extrahaustorial matrix in both incompatible and compatible plant-pathogen interactions. For powdery mildew of barley, immunogold staining was distinctly increased over the center of the penetration sites; however, no labeling was found over papillae that formed during incompatible and compatible interactions. In addition, no cross-reactivity of the anti-THRGP antiserum with intercellularly growing rust pathogens was observed. The highly localized deposition of THRGP-like molecules in the extrahaustorial matrix suggests that the host plant establishes a modified barrier between itself and the pathogen.Abbreviations C chloroplast - EC plant epidermal cell - EM extrahaustorial membrane - EMA extrahaustorial matrix - GO Golgi body - GRP glycine-rich protein - HP high pressure - HRGP hydroxyprolinerich glycoprotein - Hyp hydroxyproline - LT low temperature - PBS phosphate-buffered saline - PBST PBS with Tween-20 - THRGP threonine-hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein - VA vesicular arbuscular     

Cereal chaff used as temper in loom-weights: new evidence from a Slovenian Eneolithic pile-dwelling site (ca. 3100 cal <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">bc</Emphasis>)

We present new evidence of the intentional use of cereal by-products at Stare gmajne, an Eneolithic pile-dwelling site in Slovenia, dated approximately 3160–3100 cal bc. The chaff material, which had been used for tempering, was discovered inside one of the largest discovered loom-weights and analysed. Clay, which was used by the dwellers to make the weight, was tempered with cereal chaff to reinforce it. The practice of tempering, not necessarily for loom weights, has already been proven for earlier settlements, mostly in arid areas where firewood, grazing and building material were scarce. However, tempering has rarely been found in European prehistoric sites. More than 1,800 carbonised and half-carbonised, excellently preserved and well identifiable cereal plant macroremains in less than 1 l of waterlogged clayey material were sorted and counted. Among the recognized plant macroremains, barley rachis fragments and glume wheat (emmer and einkorn) by-products such as spikelet forks and glume bases prevailed. A few grains were also found. Cultivation of the main crops of emmer, einkorn and barley at Slovenian Eneolithic pile-dwelling sites was confirmed again. Among the chaff, a new “strange type” of Triticum dicoccum (emmer) spikelet forks was discovered. The size of the weight and the intentional local use of cereal by-products as temper suggest that late Neolithic (Eneolithic) pile-dwelling societies all around the Alps were highly organized and developed due to expansion of crop production and processing.     

Food of the opossum Trichosurus vulpecula (Kerr) in the Waiho Valley,South Westland

Abstract

Opossums liberated in the Westland National Park between 1924 and 1930 became established. Analysis of 12 months' faecal samples (1974-75) showed that in the Waiho Valley opossums strongly preferred six plant species, but also ate others. Leaves were the most important food, though fragments of fruit, seed, bark, petiole, and invertebrates were found in the faeces. The preferred species included Metrosideros umbellata and Fuchsia excorticata; if these are drastically depleted by continued browsing, the abundance of birds that eat their nectar and fruit may also be reduced.     

Lacewings (Chrysopidae,Neuroptera) in cereal agrocenoses of the forest-steppe of Western Siberia

Twelve species of lacewings: Chrysopa altaica, Ch. commata, Ch. perplexa, Ch. phyllochroma, Ch. dasyptera, Ch. carnea, Ch. formosa, Ch. intima, Ch. perla, Ch. prasina, Ch. septempunctata, and Nineta inpunctata were found in cereal agroecosystems of the forest-steppe zone of Western Siberia. The dominant species were Ch. carnea and Ch. phyllochroma. The biological characteristics, seasonal dynamics of the abundance of lacewings in the agrocenoses of winter rye, spring wheat, and oats are given. The abundance of larval and adult lacewings in the spring wheat agrocenosis was not affected by the level of chemicalization (upon condition of the rational use of insecticides), tillage variant, and predecessor crop. In the years when the density of lacewings was low, no differences in their population were found between the agrocenoses of wheat (after fallow), winter rye, oats, vetch-oats, canola, barley, and barley with melilot. In the years characterized by relatively high abundance of lacewings, they occurred more frequently in the crop rotations with wheat after fallow and with oats. These plants were settled by cereal aphids to the greatest extent. In all the years studied, the density of lacewings on alfalfa was 2–2.8 times as great as that on wheat after fallow.     

Expression of the Arabidopsis vacuolar H+‐pyrophosphatase gene (AVP1) improves the shoot biomass of transgenic barley and increases grain yield in a saline field

Cereal varieties with improved salinity tolerance are needed to achieve profitable grain yields in saline soils. The expression of AVP1, an Arabidopsis gene encoding a vacuolar proton pumping pyrophosphatase (H⁺‐PPase), has been shown to improve the salinity tolerance of transgenic plants in greenhouse conditions. However, the potential for this gene to improve the grain yield of cereal crops in a saline field has yet to be evaluated. Recent advances in high‐throughput nondestructive phenotyping technologies also offer an opportunity to quantitatively evaluate the growth of transgenic plants under abiotic stress through time. In this study, the growth of transgenic barley expressing AVP1 was evaluated under saline conditions in a pot experiment using nondestructive plant imaging and in a saline field trial. Greenhouse‐grown transgenic barley expressing AVP1 produced a larger shoot biomass compared to null segregants, as determined by an increase in projected shoot area, when grown in soil with 150 mm NaCl. This increase in shoot biomass of transgenic AVP1 barley occurred from an early growth stage and also in nonsaline conditions. In a saline field, the transgenic barley expressing AVP1 also showed an increase in shoot biomass and, importantly, produced a greater grain yield per plant compared to wild‐type plants. Interestingly, the expression of AVP1 did not alter barley leaf sodium concentrations in either greenhouse‐ or field‐grown plants. This study validates our greenhouse‐based experiments and indicates that transgenic barley expressing AVP1 is a promising option for increasing cereal crop productivity in saline fields.     

II. Cereal disease: the interplay between resistance and pathogenicity: Inheritance of pathogenicity in Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici

Variation in host response of isolates of the eyespot pathogen from different sources was examined over a number of years. Pathogen types were found in intensively-cropped couch-infested cereal sites that were almost as virulent on Agropyron repens (couch) as on wheat or barley. The commonly occurring wheat (W) type isolates from couch-free cereal crops were virulent on wheat and barley but avirulent on couch. Couch (C) types were isolated not only from couch but also from wheat, barley and oat crops with couch infestation. In pathogenicity tests on rye, C. types did not differ in virulence from the more commonly occurring W types. Aegilops ventricosa was equally resistant to both types. W type isolates from wheat and barley were examined to assess differential pathogenicity on wheat and barley. Sequential cropping with single cereal crops was used to separate out possible specific types. Isolates from fourth wheat and fourth barley crops were more pathogenic on the original than on the alternative host. When comparisons were made between isolates from third and fifth consecutive wheat and barley crops only those from barley showed a preference for the original host. An experiment comparing isolates from third and seventh consecutive wheat and barley crops showed a decline in virulence from the short to the longer sequences on the alternative but not on the original host.     

Subsistence strategies of two Bronze Age hill-top settlements in the eastern Alps—Friaga/Bartholomäberg (Vorarlberg, Austria) and Ganglegg/Schluderns (South Tyrol, Italy)

Up to now, archaeobotanical investigations of prehistoric sites in the eastern Alpine region have been rare. Recent palaeoethnobotanical investigations of carbonised plant remains from two Bronze Age hill-top settlements, one located north and the other south of the main Alpine range, contribute essentially to the knowledge of subsistence strategies and husbandry regimes in the Alps in prehistoric periods. The principal cereals were Hordeum vulgare (hulled barley), Triticum dicoccon (emmer) and Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet). In general, hulled barley was the most important cereal crop in the eastern Alps. Legumes such as Vicia faba (horse bean) and Pisum sativum (pea) also occurred regularly in both hill-top settlements. In addition to these field crops, a large variety of wild plants was still gathered and contributed considerably to the daily diet. The arable weed flora suggests that crops were sown in spring and autumn and it indicates crop rotation in this period. The results of the plant macrofossils imply a complex pattern of plant resource utilisation in the Alpine area during the Bronze Age.     

Heavy metals accumulation and distribution in durum wheat and barley grown in contaminated soils under Mediterranean field conditions

Abstract

In the framework of a phytoremediation project in the Apulia region (Italy) a field experiment was carried out in multi-metal contaminated soils. The accumulation and distribution of metals in different plant parts of durum wheat and barley were studied. Further, the application of Bacillus licheniformis strain BLMB1 to soil was evaluated as a means to enhance metal accumulation in plants. The translocation and the bioconcentration factors indicated that wheat and barley do not act as metal accumulators in the field conditions tested, thus phytoextraction by these species would not be recommended as a soil remediation alternative. Application of B. licheniformis improved the accumulation of all metals in roots of wheat and barley, and increased Cd, Cr, and Pb contents in the shoots of barley. Low health risk for humans and animals was evaluated to exist if straw and grain from both cereal crops grown in these contaminated sites are consumed.     

Utilization of grass carp faeces by the IsopodAsellus aquaticus (L.) in the laboratory

Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella Val) faecal pellets derived fromElodea nutallii consumption were efficiently utilized by the detritivoreAsellus. Immature and adult individuals of 2.1–3.2 mm and 4.9–6.0 mm respectively, exhibited a high mean specific growth (9.03%/day and 3.33%/day) when offered faecal pellets as food during two weeks experimental trials. Individuals of the same groups, when fed onElodea which had been mechanically fragmented to simulate the macerating action of the grass carp pharyngeal teeth, grew at rates (9.57%/day and 4.06%/day) not significantly different from those fed on faecal pellets. However, the growth rates of animals fed on freshElodea (6.40%/day and 2.23%/day) were significantly lower than in the above trials, indicating that the morphological destruction of the plant tissue could be responsible for the higher observed growth. The control trials, including unfed animals, showed negative growth (– 0.49%/day and – 0.48%/day).Grass carp herbivory makes a new food resource available to benthic invertebrates by converting fresh plant material to small plant fragments.     

Field experiments with spring barley resistant to cereal cyst nematode, 1965–1968

Two bulk populations of spring barley lines differing in respect of a single dominant gene for cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera avenae) resistance were used in trials over 4 years to assess the effect of the nematode on grain yield. On an infested site the resistant lines consistently and significantly out-yielded the susceptible lines by an average of 9 % over the 4 years. On non-infested sites, there was no difference in yield between the resistant and susceptible lines. To measure changes in the cereal cyst nematode population under continuous barley cultivation, the resistant and susceptible lines were each sown at the infested site on the same plots for 4 consecutive years. The cereal cyst nematode population declined under both susceptible and resistant barley, but more rapidly under the latter. Migratory nematodes, mostly Pratylenchus minyus, were latterly prevalent on all plots. There was no detectable change in the pathogenicity of the cereal cyst nematode population after 3 years of growing resistant barley.