The biology and evolution of the reproductive cycle of Miniopterus schreibersii and M. australis (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae)

The reproductive biology of Miniopterus schreibersii and M. australis was studied at latitude 28·5°S, in eastern Australia. Comparison was made with material from 23·5°S to 37°S.
Both species are monoestrous and monotocous. Ovulation is from the left ovary and implantation is in the right cornu. At latitude 28·5°S, a "silent heat" precedes behavioural oestrus and fertilization by two months in M. schreibersii and three months in M. australis. In M. schreibersii copulation and fertilization occur in late May and early June, immediately after a relatively short period of spermatogenesis and about one month after the release of sperm to the epididymides. During winter, implantation of the blastocyst stage is delayed. The male accessory glands involute but a store of epididymal sperm is retained. Implantation occurs in August and birth is in December.
M. australis conceives in mid-August, after an extended period of spermatogenesis which ceases four to six weeks prior to copulation. An epididymal sperm store is present some 21/2 months prior to insemination. Implantation has occurred by mid-September and parturition takes place in December.
Comparative data from other latitudes in eastern Australia show no differences in the timing of a reproductive events of M. australis between 23·5°S and 31°S. In M. schreibersii in South Australia (37°S) mating occurs in April and May. Plasticity in the timing of parturition (October to December) and other anomalies of this population are discussed.
The data suggest that evolutionary hypotheses involving extrapolation from one species to the other are questionable and that a more complex and varied adaptive response to climate may exist than has hitherto been supposed.     

Mating Behavior of Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae): Potential for Outbreeding in a Predominantly Inbreeding Species

The mating behavior of the quasi-gregarious egg parasitoid Trissolcus basalis (Wollaston) was investigated under field conditions. Trissolcus basalis has female-biased sex ratios and is a protandrous species, with males emerging 1–2 days before females. Males competed aggressively for control of the egg mass, with one male assuming dominance and control of the egg mass, although changes in dominance occurred at least once on each egg mass observed. Typical mating behavior involved the dominant male mating his sisters immediately upon their emergence from the egg mass. These behaviors are characteristic of an inbreeding species that manifests local mate competition. However, several aspects of the mating behavior of T. basalis are inconsistent with that of an inbreeding species. Over 18% of emerging females were not mated by the dominant male upon emergence, 13% of females were not observed to be mated at all and may have left their natal site as virgins, 25% of females were mated multiple times and sometimes by multiple males, females remained near the natal site for up to several hours after emergence before emigrating, and males dispersed away from the natal site during female emergence. Trissolcus basalis may be a predominantly inbreeding species but its emergence and mating behavior suggest that low-frequency outbreeding is also likely to occur.     

Impact of the biological control agent Mesoclanis polana (Tephritidae) on bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. rotundata) in eastern Australia

The seed fly Mesoclanis polana (Diptera: Tephritidae) was released in Australia in 1996. Its impact on seed production of bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera subsp. rotundata) was monitored at eight sites along the New South Wales coast from 1996 to 2004. Peak flowerhead production occurred in autumn (March to May); therefore, samples collected in May of each year were used to compare abundance and impact of M. polana across sites and between years. Latitude had a significant effect on abundance and impact of M. polana. By May 2004, 99.6% of flowerheads at the five most northern sites contained at least one egg, while 64% of flowerheads from the two most southern sites contained at least one egg. In May 2004, mean numbers of M. polana eggs per flowerhead were between 13 and 17 at four of the six northern sites and below two at the two southern sites. In May 2004, average seed destruction by M. polana was 58% at the four most northern sites and 11% at the two most southern sites. The highest level of seed destruction recorded was 86% at Kingscliff in May 2003. Percentage seed destruction in May provided a reasonable estimate of seed destruction for the whole year. Parasitoids were found throughout the range of M. polana in Australia. Their attack rate on M. polana was less than 10% at all sites, except at the two most northern sites where parasitism of up to 27% was recorded. Parasitism results are compared with predictions made following an earlier study. The release of Mesoclanis magnipalpis, a species suited to cooler environments, is recommended for the southern range of C. monilifera subsp. rotundata.     

Suicide is not the inevitable outcome of "perpetual" selfing in tetrahymenines collected from natural habitats.

A significant fraction of the Tetrahymena clones isolated from natural habitats self (mating occurs within a clone). Early attempts to study such clones failed because stable subclones were rarely, if ever, observed, and isolated pairs all died. Isozyme analysis revealed that these wild selfers were a diverse group; some were very similar to T. australis, a species with synclonal mating type determination and to T. elliotti, shown recently to have a karyonidal mating type system. One originally stable clone of T. australis included some selfing clones after a few years in our laboratory. Other clones manifested unique zymograms. Subclones isolated from 18 selfer strains were heterogeneous. All subclones of several selfers mated massively at each transfer through 100 fissions. Selfing among subclones of other selfers was highly variable or not observed. Although 77% of the pairs isolated died, and 9% of the pair cultures selfed, 15 selfers yielded some viable nonselfing "immature" progeny. Additional immature progeny were obtained by isolating pairs from macronuclear retention synclones. Although some "immature" progeny eventually selfed, most remained stable. Giemsa staining revealed macronuclear anlagen in nearly all mating pairs and some anomalies. Crosses among the F1 progeny clones of the T. elliotti selfers yield viability data comparable to those from crosses among normal strains. Perhaps perpetual selfing is a mechanism of getting rid of deleterious combinations of genes and uncovering better combinations in homozygous state by playing genetic roulette.     

The synonymy and distribution of the crenaticeps-group of Atractomorpha Saussure, 1862 (Orthoptera, Acridoidea, Pyrgomorphidae)

The general distribution of Atractomorpha australis Rehn, A. similis Bolívar and A. crenaticeps (Blanchard) in Australia and the South Pacific is discussed. Detailed synonymies and lists of known localities are given for each species, together with a distribution map. A. australis is confined to cooler, moister regions of Australia from eastern Victoria to south-western Queensland; A. similis is more tropical, occurring in the southern Moluccas, Timor, southern New Guinea and associated islands to northern and eastern Australia, but it extends, in suitable localities, as far south as central New South Wales, and, in inland areas, even to north-western Victoria and south-eastern South Australia; A. crenaticeps , formerly thought to embrace both the above species, is restricted to the northern Moluccas, western and other parts of New Guinea north of and including the central mountain chains and associated islands to the north and west, and to the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands.     

白马雪山自然保护区响古箐滇金丝猴（Rhinopithecus bieti）的交配行为

灵长类交配模式是灵长类社群结构和婚配制度的重要表征之一,其研究有助于了解灵长类社群结构和两性交配策略。2013年11月至2014年10月,我们对云南白马雪山国家级自然保护区一人工辅助投食滇金丝猴群进行了观察研究,采用焦点动物取样法和全事件记录法收集了雌雄个体的交配相关的行为数据,主要包括邀配对象、交配过程、持续时间和回合数,以及参与交配的雌雄对在交配结束后的相互理毛的持续时间和回合数。研究结果表明：研究群滇金丝猴全年均有交配行为,交配高峰期在7-9月,两性参与交配的积极性和对季节变化的响应不同;交配主要由雌性通过邀配发动（76%）,交配高峰期也是雌性邀配的高峰期;雄性爬跨频次（年均0.43次/月,n=5）和射精爬跨比（年均19%,n=5）则在全年无显著变化。交配行为发生的典型表现为：雌性通过小跑或跳跃进入雄性视线范围内,爬伏呈臀向雄性邀配;雌猴爬伏时离雄猴的远近距离不同（<1m vs. 2-5m ： 69% vs. 31%）会影响其邀配成功率（<1 m vs. 2-5 m ：68% vs. 40%）;若一次邀配失败,雌猴可能会连续爬伏邀配（最多4次）,连续多次邀配的成功率显著高于单次邀配（79% vs. 52%）。交配结束后雌性会主动为雄性理毛,但雌性主动理毛与交配是否射精无关。     

A phylogenetic analysis of pygmy perches (Teleostei: Percichthyidae) with an assessment of the major historical influences on aquatic biogeography in southern Australia

The biogeography of southern Australia is characterized by a repeated pattern of relatedness between the biota of southwestern and southeastern Australia. Both areas possess a temperate climate but are separated by a vast arid region, currently lacking permanent freshwater habitats, which has become increasingly drier since about 15 Ma. Aquatic organisms have thus potentially remained isolated for a considerable time. Pygmy perches (Nannatherina and Nannoperca, Percichthyidae) provide an excellent scenario for investigating biogeographic relationships between southwestern and southeastern regions as multiple species occur on either side of Australia. This allows us to potentially differentiate between "Multiple Invasion" and "Endemic Speciation," the two major hypotheses proposed to account for current distributions. The first suggests that multiple east-west movements have occurred, whereas the second suggests a single east-west split, with current biodiversity in each region being reciprocally monophyletic. Systematic relationships within this group were investigated with the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene; nuclear intron and exon sequences from S7, RAG1, and RAG2; and 53 allozyme loci. Our data supported the hypothesis of multiple movements across southern Australia based on a consistent lack of support for reciprocal monophyly of eastern and western species. This study appears to be the first example of an animal group displaying clear multiple east-west movement in southern Australia, as all other aquatic and terrestrial fauna previously examined displayed a single east-west split. Despite a high degree of sympatry within each region, the only evidence for hybridization was found between Nannoperca australis and N. obscura, with the latter having its mitochondrial genome completely replaced by that of N. australis, with no evidence for nuclear introgression. This is one of only a few confirmed examples of complete replacement of the mitochondrial genome in one species with that of another. Cryptic differentiation was also evident within the two most widespread species, N. australis and N. vittata, indicating that these likely consist of multiple species. We also highlight the need for multiple molecular markers with different strengths in order to obtain a more robust phylogeny, despite problems resulting from potential incongruences between data sets.     

Multiple gene sequences delimit Botryosphaeria australis sp. nov. from B. lutea

Botryosphaeria lutea (anamorph Fusicoccum luteum) most easily is distinguished from other Botryosphaeria spp. by a yellow pigment that is formed in young cultures. This fungus has been reported from a number of cultivated hosts in New Zealand and Portugal. During a survey of Botryosphaeria fungi that occur on native Acacia species in Australia, a yellow pigment was observed in some cultures. These isolates were morphologically similar to B. lutea, but the pigment differed slightly from the one formed by authentic B. lutea isolates. Preliminary data also revealed small differences in ITS rDNA sequence data. The aim of this study was to determine whether these small differences were indicative of separate species or merely variations within B. lutea. Anamorph, teleomorph and culture morphology were compared between B. lutea and Acacia isolates from Australia. Sequence data of two other genome regions, namely the β-tubulin and EF1-α gene and intron regions, were combined with ITS rDNA sequence data to determine the phylogenetic relationship between these isolates. Isolates of B. lutea and those from Australian Acacia species were not significantly different in spore morphology. The yellow pigment, however, was much more distinct in cultures of B. lutea than in cultures from Acacia. There were only a few base pair variations in each of the analyzed gene regions, but these variations were fixed in the two groups in all regions. By combining these data it was clear that B. lutea and the isolates from Acacia were distinct species, albeit very closely related. We, therefore, propose the new epithet B. australis for the fungus from Australia. Botryosphaeria australis also was isolated in this study from exotic Sequoiadendron trees in Australia. Re-analyses of GenBank data in this study showed that B. australis also occurs on other native Australian hosts, namely a Banksia sp. and a Eucalyptus sp., as well as a native Protea sp. in South Africa and on Pistachio in Italy. These records from GenBank have been identified previously as B. lutea. The common occurrence of B. australis on a variety of native hosts across Australia suggests that this fungus is native to this area.     

Parasite-related pairing success in an intermediate host, Caecidotea intermedius (Isopoda): effects of male behavior and reproductive physiology

The acanthocephalan parasite Acanthocephalus dirus develops from the egg to the cystacanth stage inside the freshwater isopod Caecidotea intermedius. We have shown previously that cystacanth-infected male C. intermedius are less likely to initiate mating attempts with females than uninfected males in competitive situations. Here, we used a field-based experiment to examine whether cystacanth-infected males were also less likely to initiate mating attempts with females in noncompetitive situations. We found that infected males were less responsive to females than uninfected males, and we propose that the cystacanth-related change in male mating behavior is mediated by a change in the mating response of males to females rather than male-male competition. We then examined whether cystacanth-related changes in reproductive function, i.e., sperm content and fertilization ability, could explain this variation in male mating behavior. We found that cystacanth-infected males contained both developing and mature sperm and fertilized as many eggs as uninfected males. Thus, we propose that changes in reproductive function are unlikely to explain cystacanth-related variation in male mating behavior in C. intermedius.     

Identifying gastropod spawn from DNA barcodes: possible but not yet practicable

Identifying life stages of species with complex life histories is problematic as species are often only known and/or described from a single stage. DNA barcoding has been touted as an important tool for linking life-history stages of the same species. To test the current efficacy of DNA barcodes for identifying unknown mollusk life stages, 24 marine gastropod egg capsules were collected off the Philippines in deep water and sequenced for partial fragments of the COI, 16S and 12S mitochondrial genes. Two egg capsules of known shallow-water Mediterranean species were used to calibrate the method. These sequences were compared to those available in GenBank and the Barcode of Life Database (BOLD). Using COI sequences alone, only a single Mediterranean egg capsule was identified to species, and a single Philippine egg capsule was identified tentatively to genus; all other COI sequences recovered matches between 76% and 90% with sequences from BOLD and GenBank. Similarity-based identification using all three markers confirmed the Mediterranean specimens' identifications. A phylogenetic approach was also implemented to confirm similarity-based identifications and provide a higher-taxonomic identification when species-level identifications were not possible. Comparison of available GenBank sequences to the diversity curve of a well-sampled coral reef habitat in New Caledonia highlights the poor taxonomic coverage achieved at present in existing genetic databases, emphasizing the need to develop DNA barcoding projects for megadiverse and often taxonomically challenging groups such as mollusks, to fully realize its potential as an identification and discovery tool.     

Leptospiral antibodies in flying foxes in Australia

The sera of 271 pteropid bats (or flying foxes) collected from Queensland, New South Wales, Western Australia, and the Northern Territory were screened against a reference panel of 21 Leptospira spp. using the microscopic agglutination test (MAT). Sera were collected from December 1997 through August 1999. The MAT panel represented those serovars previously isolated in Australia, as well as exotic serovars found in neighboring countries. Leptospiral antibodies were detected in 75 (28%) of the sera and represented seven serovars, one of which, L. interrogans serovar cynopteri has been regarded as exotic to Australia. Sixty sera were reactive to one serovar, 12 sera were reactive to two serovars, and three sera were reactive to three serovars. The L. kirschneri serovar australis was most frequently identified (60.2%). The findings suggest a previously unrecognized role of pteropid bats in the natural history of leptospirosis. The potential exists for establishment of infection in new host species, the transmission of new serovars to known host species, and for changes in virulence of leptospires as a result of passage through these species.     

Fish response to the temporal hierarchy of the natural flow regime in the Daly River, northern Australia

In this study, relationships between flow variation across multiple temporal scales and the distribution and abundance of three fish species, western rainbowfish Melanotaenia australis, sooty grunter Hephaestus fuliginosus and barramundi Lates calcarifer were examined at eight sampling reaches in the Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia. Discharge was highly seasonal during the study period of 2006-2010 with a distinct wet-dry discharge pattern. Significant catchment-wide correlations were identified between species abundance and hydrologic variables across several scales describing the magnitude and variability of flow. A Bayesian hierarchical model which accounted for >80% of variation in abundances for all species and age classes (i.e. juvenile and adult), identified the extent to which the influence of short-term flow variation was dependent upon the historical flow regime. There were distinct ontogenetic differences in these relationships for H. fuliginosus, with variability of recent flows having a negative effect on juveniles which was stronger at locations with higher historical mean daily flow. Lates calcarifer also displayed ontogenetic differences in relationships to flow variation with adults showing a positive association with increase in recent flows and juveniles showing a negative one. The effect of increased magnitude of wet-season flows on M. australis was negative in locations with lower historical mean daily flow but positive in locations with higher historical mean daily flow. The results highlighted how interactions between multiple scales of flow variability influence the abundance of fish species according to their life-history requirements.     

Male mating success and female mate choice in the river sculpin,Cottus nozawae (Cottidae)

Synopsis Mating success of males and its correlates were investigated in a natural population of the polygynous fluvial sculpinCottus nozawae. Furthermore, the female mate preference of this species was examined experimentally under alternative conditions for mating in a stream. The mating success of individual males (the number of females with which a male mated) ranged between 0 and 8 with a mean of 2.41 in 1983 and 2.52 in 1989, in a population of which the sex ratio was about 1 : 2 in both years, skewed toward females. Mainly due to the excess of nests without egg masses and the few nests with one egg mass, the distribution of male mating success did not fit a Poisson distribution, indicating its non-randomness. Male mating success was not correlated either with the size of the nest rocks or with the male size, suggesting that these two variables are not determinants of mating success. The mate choice experiments demonstrated that females of this species more frequently chose smaller males as mates whose nests already contained eggs than large males without eggs. Additionally, an analysis of stomach contents of guarding males suggested that the parental males ate their own eggs during egg guarding (filial-cannibalism). Based on these results and on a comparison of reproductive characteristics with congeneric species, it is suggested that one of the most important determinants for female mate choice inCottus species may be whether or not parental males are filial egg cannibals.     

Species of Anguilla as indicators of mercury in the coastal rivers and lakes of Victoria, Australia

Mercury concentrations in the axial muscle tissue of most (243) of the 254 Anguilla australis and most (20) of the 27 A. reinhardtii collected from 30 sites in coastal rivers and lakes in Victoria, Australia, during 1975–78 were well below the Australian statutory health limit (0.5 μg g⁻¹ wet weight). For A. australis the mean mercury concentration was 0.17 μg g⁻¹ (±0.16 s.d. , range 0.01–1.60 μg g⁻¹); for A. reinhardtii the values were 0.37 ± 0.23 μg g⁻¹ (range 0.12–1.10 μg g⁻¹). Statistical analyses showed that variation in mercury concentration due to total length accounted for only 13% of the total variation in A. australis and 2% in A. reinhardtii whereas locality accounted for 54 and 68%, respectively. Both species are thus considered suitable as indicators of mercury pollution.     

Alternative male mating behaviors dependent on relative body size in captive oval squid Sepioteuthis lessoniana (Cephalopoda, Loliginidae)

We observed the reproductive behavior of the oval squid Sepioteuthis lessoniana in captivity. The male used three different mating behaviors: male-parallel (MP), male-upturned (MU) and sneaking. Male competition over females frequently occurred before and during the female egg-laying period, and the outcome of most fights depended on male body size. Larger males guarded their partners from other males and performed MP mating during the egg-laying period of the paired females. In contrast, there was no pairing and mate guarding in MU mating and sneaking, which were adopted by smaller subordinate males as alternative tactics outside female egg-laying period and during the period, respectively. MP matings were 95% successful, but more than half of MU matings were unsuccessful. Higher mating success in MP mating was achieved through pairing, whereas males in MU mating were less successful because mating attempts without pair formation were often foiled by escape of the female. Sneaking was successful in all cases but occurred less frequently. Spermatophores were attached at the opening of the oviduct in MP mating, whereas they were attached around the female buccal membrane in MU mating and sneaking. Considering the route of egg transportation, higher fertilization success can be expected in MP mating because of the advantageous location of the attached spermatophores. Our results suggest that MP mating is used by larger, paired males during the female egg-laying period, and that MU mating and sneaking are alternative tactics adopted by smaller, subordinate males. These alternative mating behaviors would be conditional strategy dependent on relative body size, because some individual males displayed both MP and MU mating behaviors.     

Exploring nursery sites for oviparous chondrichthyans in the Southwest Atlantic (36°S–41°S)

The aim of this paper was to explore egg-laying areas of oviparous chondrichthyans occurring in the northern part of the Southwest Atlantic Ocean (36°S–41°S) at between 50 and 200 metres depth and the Mar del Plata Canyon (from 200 to 3447?m). A total of 515 capsules were collected corresponding to 10 species. Four species accounted for 87.6% of the total catch: Psammobatis normani, Bathyraja macloviana, Amblyraja doellojuradoi and Bathyraja brachyurops. The remaining corresponded to Schroederichthys bivius, Psammobatis rudis, Zearaja chilensis, Bathyraja albomaculata, Psammobatis lentiginosa and Bathyraja sp. Most hauls were monospecific and relatively few hauls contained four or five species (southern part of the area, in sites located at 75 and 94–105?m depth). No egg capsules were recorded between 1712?m and 3447?m. Highest densities (>3000 capsules/km²) were mainly found between 39°46.2′ and 40°29.9′S from 85 to 105?m and they were also recorded near the Mar del Plata Canyon at 37°59.7′S and at 852?m. The highest value recorded was 12,326 capsules/km² (located at 40°18.9′S and 85.4?m). The highest densities for each of the most abundant species are discussed. The finding of high densities of egg cases near the Argentine shelf-break front indicates that many skate species use this area as a nursery site. The egg-laying areas explored here are the first reported sites of this kind in the Southwest Atlantic Ocean. Recognizing and protecting egg-laying habitats may be important steps to a long-term conservation of oviparous chondrichthyan populations.     

Within and Between Species Variation in Male Mating Behaviors in the Mexican Sailfin Mollies Poecilia velifera and P. petenensis

Polymorphism in male morphology is often correlated with the expression of alternate behavioral tactics. This relationship between behavioral and morphological polymorphisms, however, is less well understood. We characterized male mating behaviors and morphological variation within and between Poecilia velifera and P. petenensis to understand mating signal evolution in the sailfin molly lineage. In addition, we examined whether differences between these species in the size range of mature males and the strength of allometry between dorsal fin size and body length could explain the variation observed in their expression of different mating behaviors. We determined each male's mating behavior profile by observing the behavior of a single male in the presence of a receptive female. We found that P. velifera showed evidence of an alternate male mating strategy, with small males generally performing only gonopodial thrusts (forced insemination attempts) towards receptive females, while large males performed courtship displays as well as gonopodial thrusts. Males of P. petenensis performed similar rates of courtship displays and gonopodial thrusts regardless of body length. Little variation existed among populations of P. velifera in mating behaviors, while males from different populations of P. petenensis showed population‐specific average rates of each mating behavior. Population differences in P. petenensis may be driven, in part, by its occurrence in more variable habitats than those occupied by P. velifera. Variation among individuals in the mating repertoire of P. velifera, but not P. petenensis, suggests that the greater range of variation in male size at maturity, as well as considerably stronger allometry between dorsal fin size and body length, may explain why males of P. velifera show the greatest degree of expression of alternate male mating behaviors when compared to other sailfin species. These results also suggest an important role of morphological polymorphisms in predicting the expression of alternate male mating behaviors.     

Mating tactics in the sub-Antarctic deep-sea squid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Onykia ingens</Emphasis> (Cephalopoda: Onychoteuthidae)

The behavior of polar deep-sea nekton is very poorly known. To obtain insight into mating behavior of the abundant and ecologically important sub-Antarctic deep-sea squid Onykia ingens, our goals were to (1) quantify spermatophore production; (2) determine the preferred location for spermatangia deposition; (3) investigate whether male and female O. ingens mate with multiple mates; and (4) discuss the location of implanted spermatangia in light of mating behavior and egg fertilization. Toward this end, we examined male and female O. ingens specimens from Falkland Island and New Zealand waters. Male O. ingens store up to 198 spermatophores (mean 103 ± 61; n = 12) in their reproductive system, which are produced over a period of considerable somatic growth (200–400 mm ML), and which may have a considerable size range. Males insert their long extendible terminal organ in the mantle cavity of the female, potentially through the funnel, to deposit spermatophores in one or more of four regions on the female’s body. Most implanted spermatangia (52.5 %) were found in the funnel region, but many were also found inside the mantle cavity closer to the oviducts. Males with longer terminal organs therefore may be able to position closer to the oviducts where fertilization chances are higher than for spermatangia located in the funnel region. The number of implanted spermatangia per individual female (4–60, mean 29 ± 20; n = 24), the multiregional spermatangia deposition, and the different outer appearance of spermatangia, suggested that females have multiple mating events. Since males produce more spermatophores (up to 200) than the number of spermatangia in one region (<60), it is likely that males too mate with more than one female. We show how quantitative assessment of reproductive characteristics can provide insight into the reproductive behavior of deep-sea species for which in situ observations are currently lacking.     

Ecology of the Aedes australis (Erichson) 1842 Complex (Diptera: Culicidae) in Australia and New Zealand

Most populations of Ae. australis developed their first egg batch without a blood-meal (autogeny), but the proportion of females that were autogenous was altered by environmental conditions. Low rearing temperatures were more favourable than high temperatures for autogenous egg development, when combined with a rich protein larval diet. Neither an adult carbohydrate meal nor mating were necessary for maximum autogenous egg production. of five Tasmania collections examined, the proportion of autogenous females amongst the different populations ranged from 100% to 0%. In the autogenous Sydney, NSW, population, the addition of a blood-meal did not increase egg production in the first gonotrophic cycle.     

Extrapair paternity in the common sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos, revealed by DNA fingerprinting

The prevalence of extrapair paternity in many socially monogamous passerines has not been mirrored in most monogamous nonpasserines studied to date. Here, we investigated the reproductive behaviour of a socially monogamous shorebird, the common sandpiper, using multilocus DNA fingerprinting. Given the high level of paternal care in the species, and the likely high costs in allocating care between kin and nonkin in species with precocial young, we predicted low levels of extrapair paternity similar to other monogamous shorebirds. We found the social mating system to be predominantly monogamous although one polyandrous pairing was identified. Of 83 offspring from 27 broods, 13 (15.7%) young from five (18.5%) broods were identified as being extrapair. There was no evidence of intraspecific nest parasitism or quasiparasitism. In this population, territorial intrusions were carried out largely by males but did not appear to be related to seeking extrapair copulations (EPCs). Seventy copulation attempts were observed and most were within-pair (84%). Six of eight EPC attempts occurred outside the territory of the female's social mate. Copulation rates were significantly higher just before and during egg laying than at other times during the study. At least two females that reared extrapair young had associated with males other than their eventual mates on arrival, suggesting that some females use rapid mate switching as a mating tactic, facilitated perhaps by the asynchronous arrival among both sexes in this population. Why some female sandpipers mate promiscuously remains unresolved.