Myxomycete distribution varies among leaf litters of different vegetation in a local secondary forest of warm-temperate western Japan

Although many myxomycetes inhabit leaf litter on the forest floor and have feeding stages in litter layers, there has been little understanding regarding how the different types of leaf litter in a forest influence myxomycetes to distribute. In this study, I focused on the microhabitat distribution of foliicolous myxomycetes within a local secondary forest that consisted of various vegetation types in warm-temperate western Japan. Newly defoliated leaf litters were collected from the ground surfaces of seven different sites and then incubated in trays at a forested site throughout the entire fruiting seasons (in situ incubation method). Forty-eight species of myxomycetes (with varieties treated as species) were found in a total of 4042 samples. Leaf litters derived from different vegetation sites yielded diverse myxomycete assemblages, i.e. the Quercus glauca site yielded the richest myxomycete community (26 species), followed by Quercus variabilis site (24), Prunus verecunda site (22), Cinnamomum camphora site (21), Castanopsis cuspidata site (18), Pinus densiflora site (7) and bamboo site (7). Several myxomycete species were found to be preferentially distributed in deciduous broadleaf or evergreen leaf litter. The fraction of vegetative cover of deciduous and evergreen trees influenced the species richness and diversity of myxomycetes. Leaf litter heterogeneity derived from forest vegetation and defoliation season influenced the myxomycete distribution and species diversity. Research using in situ incubation method demonstrated that heterogeneous myxomycete microhabitats are distributed at a small spatial scale in a local forest.     

An indirect method of estimating leaf area index in a tropical deciduous forest of India

Rapid, reliable and meaningful estimates of leaf area index (LAI) are essential to functional characterization of forest ecosystems including biomass and primary productivity studies. Accurate LAI estimates of tropical deciduous forest are required in studies of regional and global change modeling. Tropical deciduous forest due to higher species richness, multiple species association, varied phenophases, irregular stem densities and basal cover, multistoried canopy architecture and different micro-climatic conditions offers dynamism to the understanding of the LAI dynamics of different PFTs in an ecosystem. This investigation reports a new indirect method for measurement of leaf area index (LAI) in a topical moist deciduous forest in Himalayan foothills using LAI-2000 Plant Canopy Analyzer. We measured the LAI in two seasons (summer; leaf senescence stage and post-monsoon; full green stage) in three (dry miscellaneous, sal mixed and teak plantations) plant functional types (PFT) in Katerniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, India. Ground LAI values ranged between 2.41 and 6.89, 1.17 and 7.71, and 1.92 and 5.19 during post-monsoon season and 1.36–4.49, 0.67–3.1 and 0.37–1.83 during summer season in dry miscellaneous, sal mixed and teak plantation, respectively. We observed strong correlation between LAI and community structural parameters (tree density, basal cover and species richness), with maximum with annual litter fall (R² > 0.8) and aboveground biomass (AGB) (R² > 0.75). We provided equations relating LAI with AGB, which can be utilized in future studies for this region and can be reasonably extrapolated to other regions with suitable statistical extrapolations. However, the relations between LAI and other parameters can be further improved with incorporation of data from optimized and seasonal sampling. Our indirect method of LAI estimation using litter fall as a proxy, offers repetitive potential for LAI estimate in other PFTs with relatively time and cost-effective way, thereby generating quicker and reliable data for model run for regional and global change studies.     

Mass loss and nutrient release from decomposing evergreen and deciduous Nothofagus litters from the Chilean Andes

Abstract Leaf litter decomposition experiments were conducted on two deciduous (Nothofagus obliqua (roble)) and Nothofagus pumilio (lenga)) and one evergreen (Nothofagus dombeyi) Nothofagus (Nothofagaceae) species from a single Chilean forest in order to understand how congeneric trees with differing leaf lifespans impact the soil in which they grow. Single‐species litter samples were decomposed in a mixed hardwood forest in Ohio and in a deciduous‐evergreen Nothofagus forest in Chile. In the Ohio forest, the two deciduous species’ litters decomposed at k ≈ 1.00 per year and the evergreen at k ≈ 0.75 per year. In Chile k ranged from k ≈ 0.06 (N. obliqua) to k ≈ 0.23 (N. pumilio) per year. In both experiments, N and P were released faster from the deciduous litters than from evergreen litter. In Ohio, evergreen litter immobilized more N and P for a longer time period than did deciduous litter. As N. dombeyi stands tend to have lower available soil N and P in this particular mixed Nothofagus forest, the increased time of N and P immobilization by N. dombeyi litter suggests a feedback role of the tree itself in perpetuating low N and P soil conditions.     

Association between myxomycetes and the decay stage of coarse woody debris in an evergreen broadleaf forest in warm temperate Japan

Myxomycetes inhabit coarse woody debris in varying stages of decay; however, their ecology in the dead wood of evergreen broadleaf trees is not well known. In this study, we examined the relationships between myxomycete species and the decay stage of wood from fallen trees in an evergreen broadleaf forest in Japan. Myxomycete species richness and abundance were calculated for eight stages of decay in fallen logs, according to the appearance and wood hardness of log portions. A total of 70 myxomycete species (including varieties) were found on the logs. Moderately decayed wood was the preferred habitat of myxomycetes (57 species; 81% of the total) and most species inhabited moist decayed wood. Analysis by nonmetric multidimensional scaling enabled the differentiation of myxomycete assemblages, with five groupings recognized across the progression of decay. Forty-two species preferred a particular decay stage, represented by the decay index. Physarum viride and Stemonitis splendens particularly preferred the less-decayed wood and Stemonitopsis typhina var. similis especially inhabited the well-decayed wood. Species from the order Physarales dominated the less-decayed wood, whereas Trichiales and Liceales species dominated the softer well-decayed wood. Myxomycetes diversity was high in and varied among logs with various stages of decay in a typical Japanese evergreen forest.     

Distribution and ecology of the assemblages of myxomycetes associated with major vegetation types in Big Bend National Park,USA

The distribution and ecology of the assemblages of myxomycetes associated with four different microhabitats were studied in Big Bend National Park in Texas. During Mar. 2005, twelve plots (30 × 30 m) were established along an elevational gradient that extended from 564 to 1807 m. Samples of aerial bark from dead and living trees, aerial litter (dead but still attached plant parts), ground litter (fallen dead plant parts) and ground bark (fragments of fallen bark) were collected from these plots, which encompassed all of the major vegetation types found in the Park. Four hundred forty-seven moist chambers were prepared, and 95.8 % (428) produced some evidence (either fruit bodies or plasmodia) of myxomycetes. A total of 71 species were recorded, with ground litter yielding most (45 species). Aerial litter, aerial bark and ground bark yielded 44, 39 and 37 species, respectively. Species abundance distribution measures (diversity, dominance and similarities) varied among the four microhabitats as well as among the major vegetation types. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) showed that species distribution patterns were closely related to: (1) the major environmental-complex gradients associated with differences in elevation/temperature/moisture conditions that occur from one locality to another; and (2) the different types of microhabitat.     

Leaf litter nitrogen concentration as related to climatic factors in Eurasian forests

Aim The aim of this study is to determine the patterns of nitrogen (N) concentrations in leaf litter of forest trees as functions of climatic factors, annual average temperature (Temp, °C) and annual precipitation (Precip, dm) and of forest type (coniferous vs. broadleaf, deciduous vs. evergreen, Pinus, etc.). Location The review was conducted using data from studies across the Eurasian continent. Methods Leaf litter N concentration was compiled from 204 sets of published data (81 sets from coniferous and 123 from broadleaf forests in Eurasia). We explored the relationships between leaf litter N concentration and Temp and Precip by means of regression analysis. Leaf litter data from N₂‐fixing species were excluded from the analysis. Results Over the Eurasian continent, leaf litter N concentration increased with increasing Temp and Precip within functional groups such as conifers, broadleaf, deciduous, evergreen and the genus Pinus. There were highly significant linear relationships between ln(N) and Temp and Precip (P < 0.001) for all available data combined, as well as for coniferous trees, broadleaf trees, deciduous trees, evergreen trees and Pinus separately. With both Temp and Precip as independent variables in multiple regression equations, the adjusted coefficient of determination () was evidently higher than in simple regressions with either Temp or Precip as independent variable. Standardized regression coefficients showed that Temp had a larger impact than Precip on litter N concentration for all groups except evergreens. The impact of temperature was particularly strong for Pinus. Conclusions The relationship between leaf litter N concentration and temperature and precipitation can be well described with simple or multiple linear regression equations for forests over Eurasia. In the context of global warming, these regression equations are useful for a better understanding and modelling of the effects of geographical and climatic factors on leaf litter N at a regional and continental scale.     

How do evergreen and deciduous species respond to shade?—Tolerance and plasticity of subtropical tree and shrub species of South-East China

Different plant species make use of resource gradients such as light in different ways. First, plant species specialize in using different parts of the gradient, resulting in niche partitioning, Second, within the section of the gradient used by a species, plants respond to a different resource supply by plasticity. Our study addressed both of these strategies, with the main objective to relate mean responses and plasticity indices of seedlings of woody species to species characteristics such as leaf habit and to variation in branch lengths and local frequency of adult trees in forest communities.A greenhouse experiment with 36 deciduous and 35 evergreen subtropical tree and shrub species was carried out to test the influence of light and nutrient availability on trait expression and plasticity of the species. The greenhouse responses of seedlings were compared with adult individuals in the field, based on a set of 46 species that occurred also in the 27 permanent plots in a secondary subtropical broadleaved forest in Zhejiang Province (SE-China).In the greenhouse experiment, most variables showed significant differences between unshaded (250 μE m⁻² s⁻¹) and shaded (10 μE m⁻² s⁻¹) treatments as well as between high and low nutrient supply. Deciduous species were more plastic than evergreen species in their response to light. No significant correlations were detected in mean responses and plasticity between juvenile plants in the greenhouse and adult trees in the field. However, some trait values such as biomass and node density as well as plasticity of several traits were positively related to the species’ abundance in the field, suggesting that locally abundant species tend to be less “plastic” than locally rare species.     

Leaf nutrient concentration as an indicator of Populus and Tamarix response to flooding

Plants growing in infertile environments are able to produce more biomass per unit of nutrient taken up than plants of fertile habitats, and also to minimize nutrients loss by resorbing them from senescing leaves. The leaf nutrient concentration variability of two co-existing riparian tree genera (Populus and Tamarix) along a flood inundation gradient was examined to infer nutrient limitation and to compare nutrient use strategies in the two genera. To that end, seasonal and spatial variability in leaf nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentration (i.e., % dry mass of N and P) were analyzed in 720 samples of leaves (2 tree genera × 3 seasons × 12 sites × 10 tree replicates). Both Populus and Tamarix showed strong seasonal variability in leaf N and P concentrations, with values decreasing throughout the growing season. However, while N:P atomic ratio remained seasonally constant in Populus (N:P = 33), Tamarix shifted from N:P = 29 in spring to N:P = 36 and 37 in summer and fall. %N, %P and N:P atomic ratios were also spatially variable, but leaf litter N and P concentration (i.e., nutrient resorption proficiency) and leaf litter N:P generally followed the local flood inundation gradient as shown by linear mixed effects models. In particular, nutrient resorption was usually less proficient (higher terminal nutrient concentrations) at higher flood durations (in gravel bars and natural levees), whereas N:P increased in the drier sites (floodplain terrace). At floodplain level, a P-limitation that is higher than N-limitation seems to characterize the plant nutrient circulation in the riparian ecosystem studied. Tamarix was slightly more proficient in P resorption than Populus. The study shows that leaf nutrient concentration (e.g., N and P) derived from nutrient availability is partly controlled by the flood inundation regime and can be used as an indicator of nutrient limitation in forested floodplains. Subtle differences between tree genera provide an additional, novel explanation for the recent expansion of Tamarix in many arid and semi-arid rivers with altered hydrogeomorphic regimes.     

Foliage type specific susceptibility to ozone in Picea abies,Pinus cembra and Larix decidua at treeline: A synthesis

Cumulative ozone uptake (COU, mmol m⁻²) and O₃ flux (FO₃, nmol m⁻² s⁻¹) were related to physiological, morphological and biochemical characteristics of field-grown mature evergreen Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.], Cembran pine [Pinus cembra L.], and deciduous European larch [Larix decidua Mill.] trees at treeline. The threshold COU causing a statistically significant decline in photosynthetic capacity (A_max) ranged between 19.6 mmol m⁻² in current-year needles of evergreen conifers and 22.0 6 mmol m⁻² in short-shoot needles of deciduous L. decidua subjected to exposure periods of ≥84 and ≥43 days, respectively. The higher O₃ sensitivity of deciduous L. decidua than of evergreen P abies and P. cembra was associated with differences in FO₃ and specific leaf area (SLA), both being significantly higher in L. decidua. FO₃ was 5.9 nmol m⁻² s⁻¹ in L. decidua and 2.7 nmol m⁻² s⁻¹ in evergreen conifers. Species-dependent differences were also related to detoxification capacity expressed through total surface area based concentrations of reduced ascorbate and α-tocopherol that both increased with SLA. Findings suggest that differences in O₃ sensitivity between evergreen and deciduous conifers can be attributed to foliage type specific differences in SLA, the latter determining physiological and biochemical characteristics of the treeline conifers.     

Spatiotemporal distribution and dynamic changes of myxomycetes in subtropical forests of China

The spatiotemporal distribution and dynamic changes of species composition of myxomycetes in humid subtropical forests of Houhe National Nature Reserve in southern China were studied by collecting samples of bark and ground litter within four seasons for isolation of myxomycetes in moist chamber cultures and by collecting fruiting bodies in the field from June to October. A total of 725 specimens of myxomycete fruiting bodies representing 77 species of 25 genera were registered, among them 302 records/51 species from field collections and 423 records obtained from 600 moist chamber cultures of ground litter and bark of living trees, which resulted in 35 and 39 species, respectively. Cornuvia serpula and Perichaena microspora were recorded for the first time in China. Both myxomycete species richness and diversity were significantly different in ground litter among sites and field collections among months. NMDS combined with Permanova indicated that the site had a greater impact on the myxomycete community of bark and litter than the season, while the month of field collections had a greater impact than the sampling sites. CCA and VPA analysis showed that the bark-inhabiting myxomycete species were mainly affected by spatial variables, while the litter-inhabiting and field collected species were more affected by climatic factors.     

Winter foraging habitat selection of brown-eared pheasant (Crossoptilon mantchuricum) and the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) in Huanglong Mountains, Shaanxi Province

The foraging habitat selections of brown-eared pheasant (Crossoptilon mantchuricum) and the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) were studied in Huanglongshan Nature Reserve Shaanxi, China. Foraging habitat characteristics were measured on the basis of expected differences between species at 183 sites from November to December 2006 and January 2007. The results showed that both species selected foraging habitats with altitude (<1200 m), conifer forest, half sunny and half shady slope, sunny slope, density of trees (<5 individuals/100 m²), cover of shrub (>50%), visibility class (<10%) and distance to water source (<300 m). However, the brown-eared pheasant selected habitats with cover of trees (30–50%), middle or lower slope location, distance to edge of woods (<300 m) and human disturbance (<500 m), and the selection on density of shrub was not observed, compared to the selections on cover of trees (<30%), lower slope location, distance to edge of woods (<500 m) and human disturbance (<300 m), and density of shrub (>500 individuals/100 m²) for common pheasant. We also found that the common pheasant avoid predators by concealment whereas brown-eared pheasant evade predations by running away strategy.     

不同物候时期华西雨屏区四个树种新鲜凋落物可提取腐殖质碳动态

凋落物的可提取腐殖质碳可随着植物生长节律及物候时期的变化而变化,并进而影响物质循环的过程,为深入了解以凋落物为载体的生态系统物质循环特征,该研究以华西雨屏区麻栎(Quercus acutissima)、楠木(Phoebe zhennan)、柳杉(Cryptomeria fortune)和喜树(Camptotheca acuminate)为对象,通过定点动态收集萌芽期、展叶期、盛叶期和落叶期的不同类型凋落物,分析其可提取腐殖质碳(extractable humus carbon,HC)、胡敏酸碳(humic acid carbon,HAC)、富里酸碳(fulvic acid carbon,FAC)以及胡敏酸碳/富里酸碳(humic acid carbon/fulvic acid carbon,HAC/FAC)的差异。结果表明:相对于其他凋落器官,在同一物候时期凋落叶中的HC和HAC含量都最高,大致都表现为凋落叶>凋落枝>凋落果,且在落叶树种中更为显著;相对于其他时期,展叶期四个树种凋落叶均表现出较高的FAC含量,但不同物候期凋落枝和凋落果的HAC含量以及FAC含量受物种的影响较大。尽管HAC/FAC在各器官间差异并不显著,但落叶树种相同器官的HAC/FAC低于常绿树种,表明落叶树种凋落物富里酸相对含量较高,形成速度相对较快,难降解程度也相对较大。统计分析表明关键时期、物种类型、器官类型及其相互作用对凋落物中HC、HAC、FAC含量和HAC/FAC均具有不同程度的影响,这为进一步深入认识区域生态系统以凋落物为载体的物质循环过程提供了理论依据及新的思路。     

Using digital cameras for comparative phenological monitoring in an evergreen broad-leaved forest and a seasonal rain forest

Digital cameras have been used in phenological observations for their high accuracy and low labor cost. Most studies successfully use greenness indices derived from digital images for timing the events related to leaf development. However, when timing the leaf senescence events, wide discrepancies between actual and estimated dates are common. In this study, images of three species (two from an evergreen broad-leaved forest and one from a seasonal rain forest) were used to estimate three phenological events of leaf development and senescence. Other than the greenness index, a redness index was also employed. Different annual patterns in color indices developed among the species. The redness index was more accurate when estimating leaf senescence, while the greenness index was more accurate for estimating leaf development events in Acer heptalobum and Machilus bombycina. The absolute differences in estimations of phenological events ranged from − 3 to 1 day, which is more accurate than estimates based on the greenness index only (− 2 to 27 days). With the introduction of the redness index, this technique has been much improved and is possible to be applied to more species. Furthermore, variations of color indices during periods of phenological events were highly related to the climatic factors with a time lag of around 10 days. Because of the ease of use and efficiency (i.e., automatic daily data output), digital cameras are expected to be used in ecosystem process modeling, networks of phenology assessment and validation of the remote sensing results from satellites.     

东北地区森林凋落叶分解速率与气候、林型、林分光照的关系

在东北长白山、张广才岭、小兴安岭、大兴安岭的主要森林类型中设置26块样地,进行为期3a(2004—2006年)凋落叶分解实验,以研究气候、林型、林冠透光率对凋落叶分解速率的相对影响大小。结果表明,不同林型凋落叶分解速率依次为:落叶阔叶林针阔叶混交林落叶针叶林常绿针叶林岳桦林。对分解速率影响因素的分析表明,气候因子(热量和水分)对分解速率有较强的解释力,分别解释了分解常数k和分解95%所需时间(t95%)的55.5%和65.0%的变异。但是,气候对分解速率的影响在很大程度上是通过与林型、林冠透光率的协同作用而实现的,其独立解释力并不大(9%)。气候的变化导致林型(物种组成)的变化、进而影响分解速率,这一因素解释了分解参数变异的46.8%(k)和56.8%(t95%)。与此同时,气候和林型的变化还导致林冠透光率的变化,随着热量水平的上升林冠透光率下降、间接提高分解速率。这一因素分别解释了k值和t95%变异的23.9%和22.3%。研究结果表明,气候对凋落叶分解的影响主要是通过对物种组成、林冠结构(影响透光率)等生物因素的间接作用实现的。忽视这些生物因素、简单研究气候和分解速率的关系可能难以正确预测未来气候变化对凋落物分解的影响。     

Aspects of tissue water relations and seasonal changes of leaf water potential components of evergreen and deciduous species coexisting in tropical dry forests

Summary This study compared the tissue water relations and seasonal changes in leaf water potential components of an evergreen tree,Morisonia americana, and two evergreen shrubs,Capparis verrucosa andC. aristiquetae, with two deciduous trees,Humboltiella arborea andLonchocarpus dipteroneurus, and the deciduous vineMansoa verrucifera. All these species coexist in a tropical dry forest in Venezuela. Leaves of the evergreen species are sclerophyllous, while those of the deciduous species are mesophytic. Leaf area to leaf weight ratios of fully mature leaves were about 75 and 170 cm² g^–1 in evergreen and deciduous species, respectively. Seasonal fluctuations of leaf water content per unit of dry weight, water potential, and turgor pressure were smaller in evergreen than in deciduous species. The analysis of tissue water relations using pressurevolume curves showed that evergreen species could develop a higher leaf turgor and lose turgor at lower leaf water potentials than deciduous species. This was related to a lower osmotic potential at full turgor in evergreen (-3.0 MPa)_than in deciduous (-2.0 MPa) species, rather than to the elastic properties of leaf tissue. The volumetric modulus of elasticity was 14 MPa in evergreen compared with 7–10 MPa in deciduous species. Thus, leaf characteristics are important in determining the drought resistance of evergreen species of this tropical dry forest.     

Seasonality of leaf litter and leaf area index data for various tree species in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest,Japan, 2005–2014

This paper reports seasonal data regarding leaf litter for 14 deciduous broad-leaved species and one evergreen coniferous species as well as leaf area index (LAI) data for the 14 deciduous broad-leaved species in a cool-temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest in Japan. The seasonal leaf biomass of various tree species is important for accurately evaluating ecosystem functions such as photosynthesis and evapotranspiration under climate change. However, there is a lack of freely available, long-term data. We collected litterfall every 1 to 4 weeks from September or October to November or December each year from 2005 to 2014 in Takayama, Japan (36°08′46″N, 137°25′23″E, 1420 m a.s.l.). After sorting the litter into leaves (according to species categories), stems + branches, and “other”, we dried and weighed the litter groups. We also collected seasonal leaf data (number of leaves and leaf length and width) for each broad-leaved species, which we recorded every 1 to 4 weeks from April or May to October or November using multiple target shoots. To estimate the LAI in autumn for each deciduous broad-leaved species, we used a semi-empirical model of the vertical integration of leaf dry mass per unit leaf area. To estimate the LAI in spring and summer, we used the relationship between the LAI in autumn and the seasonal leaf data. Our data provide input, calibration, and validation parameters for determining LAI based on satellite remote-sensing observations or radiative transfer models and for use in ecosystem models.     

Leaf flushing during the dry season: the paradox of Asian monsoon forests

Aim Most deciduous species of dry monsoon forests in Thailand and India form new leaves 1–2 months before the first monsoon rains, during the hottest and driest part of the year around the spring equinox. Here we identify the proximate causes of this characteristic and counterintuitive ‘spring‐flushing’ of monsoon forest trees. Location Trees of 20 species were observed in semi‐deciduous dry monsoon forests of northern Thailand with a 5–6‐month‐long severe dry season and annual rainfall of 800–1500 mm. They were growing on dry ridges (dipterocarp–oak forest) or in moist gullies (mixed deciduous–evergreen forest) at 680–750 m altitude near Chiang Mai and in a dry lowland stand of Shorea siamensis in Uthai Thani province. Methods Two novel methods were developed to analyse temporal and spatial variation in vegetative dry‐season phenology indicative of differences in root access to subsoil water reserves. Results Evergreen and leaf exchanging species at cool, moist sites leafed soon after partial leaf shedding in January–February. Drought‐resistant dipterocarp species were evergreen at moist sites, deciduous at dry sites, and trees leafed soon after leaf shedding whenever subsoil water was available. Synchronous spring flushing of deciduous species around the spring equinox, as induced by increasing daylength, was common in Thailand's dipterocarp–oak forest and appears to be prevalent in Indian dry monsoon forests of the Deccan peninsula with its deep, water‐storing soils. Main conclusions In all observed species leafing during the dry season relied on subsoil water reserves, which buffer trees against prolonged climatic drought. Implicitly, rainfall periodicity, i.e. climate, is not the principal determinant of vegetative tree phenology. The establishment of new foliage before the summer rains is likely to optimize photosynthetic gain in dry monsoon forests with a relatively short, wet growing season.     

Improving accuracy of optical methods in estimating leaf area index through empirical regression models in multiple forest types

Key message

We developed the empirical regression models relating the direct LAI and optical LAI from initial leaf out to the leaf fall in different forest types in China.

Abstract

Optical methods have usually been used to estimate the leaf area index (LAI) in a forest stand because of rapidity and reduced labor requirements. However, few studies have reportedly improved the accuracy of the optical LAI estimates for seasonal dynamics using empirical models in different forest types. In the present study, we directly measured the seasonal dynamics of LAI from leaf out to leaf fall based on litter collection (defined as direct LAI) in a mixed evergreen–deciduous forest, an evergreen forest and a deciduous forest. Meanwhile, the effective LAI was estimated using digital hemispherical photography (DHP) and LAI-2000 instruments. Our main objective was to explore the seasonal changes in the relationship between direct LAI and effective LAI values and to find the best LAI empirical estimation model in different forest types. The season-dependent models relating direct LAI and effective LAI in each period were developed through a power function regression model in several forest types. Then, significance tests were applied to compare the different season-dependent models. The analysis showed that the season-dependent models can be merged into different aggregated models depending on forest types and optical methods. We confirm that the seasonal changes in LAI in different forest types can be fully estimated through aggregated models using both DHP and LAI-2000 methods with accuracies of more than 87 and 92 %, respectively. Meanwhile, our results suggest that the forest type (i.e., species composition of forest stand) and optical method should be seriously considered to correctly and quickly estimate the seasonal changes of LAI through the aggregated models.

     

Distinct Leaf‐trait Syndromes of Evergreen and Deciduous Trees in a Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest

In seasonally dry tropical forests, tree species can be deciduous, remaining without leaves throughout the dry season, or evergreen, retaining their leaves throughout the dry season. Deciduous and evergreen trees specialize in habitats that differ in water availability (hillside and riparian forest, respectively) and in their exposure to herbivore attack (seasonal and continuous, respectively). We asked whether syndromes of leaf traits in deciduous and evergreen trees were consistent with hypothesized abiotic and biotic selective pressures in their respective habitat. We measured seven leaf traits in 19 deciduous and 11 evergreen tree species in a dry tropical forest in Western Mexico, and measured rates of herbivory on 23 of these species. We investigated the covariance of leaf traits in syndromes related to phenology and associated physiology, and to anti‐herbivory defense. We found evidence for syndromes that separated phenological strategies among four traits: toughness, water content, specific leaf area, and carbon:nitrogen (C:N) ratios. We found a trade‐off between two other traits: trichomes and latex. Overall, evergreen species exhibited lower rates of herbivory than deciduous species. Lower rates of herbivory were explained by a syndrome of higher toughness, lower water content, and higher C:N ratios, which are traits representative of evergreen trees. Phenology and trait syndromes did not exhibit significant phylogenetic signal, consistent with the hypothesis of evolutionary convergence among phenologies and associated leaf‐trait syndromes. Our results suggest that deciduous and evergreen trees could respond to differential water availability and herbivory in their respective habitats by converging on distinct leaf‐trait syndromes. Abstract in Spanish is available at http://www.blackwell‐synergy.com/loi/btp .     

Species diversity of butterflies in Changbai Mountain in China

Using a modified belt transect method, we investigated the butterfly communities in five different vertical vegetation belts of Changbai Mountain in China from 1992 to 2009; these belts were broadleaf deciduous forest, coniferous–deciduous mixed forest, coniferous forest, erman’s birch forest and alp tundra. We determined the number of species and abundance of butterflies in each belt and in the coniferous–deciduous mixed forest belt, we also compared these parameters among different months. Preston’s lognormal distribution was used to model the species abundance distributions and five indicators (Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′), Pielou uniformity index (J), Simpson predominance centralization index (C), Margalef abundance index (E) and Jaccard similarity coefficients) were used to analyze the butterfly community diversity. We found four main results. (1) Across all five vertical vegetation belts, 9641 butterflies were collected, belonging to 7 families, 98 genera and 196 species. As altitude increased, the number of butterfly genera and species gradually reduced. There was a relationship between the distribution of dominant species and the total species between each belt and the distribution of vascular plants. (2) The species abundance distribution was successfully modeled as a Preston’s lognormal distribution; the best fit was obtained when α = 0.326, the determinant coefficient of the equation was 0.74798. The species abundance distribution indicates that Changbai Mountain provides a suitable environment for butterflies; there was high species richness and an even distribution of butterfly species. There were few very common and very rare species, with most species having an intermediate abundance. (3) As altitude increased, H′ and E gradually became smaller, while C showed the opposite pattern, and J did not significantly change. The similarity coefficients analysis demonstrated a clear difference among belts; the farther apart any two belts, the smaller the similarity coefficient, indicating less similarity in the butterfly communities. The similarity coefficient between the deciduous forest and the coniferous–deciduous mixed forest belt was the largest (0.651) while that between the deciduous forest and the alp tundra was the smallest (0.141). (4) Comparison of the butterfly species communities among different months in the coniferous–deciduous mixed forest found that H′ and E showed similar directional changes, while the opposite pattern was found with C; the changes in J did not necessarily reflect the actual change in diversity.