Time-dependent rotational rates of excited fluorophores. A linkage between fluorescence depolarization and solvent relaxation

It is generally assumed that the rotational diffusion coefficients of fluorophores are independent of time subsequent to excitation, and that the rotational diffusion coefficients of the ground and the excited states are the same. We now describe a linkage between the extent of solvent relaxation and the rate of fluorescence depolarization. Specifically, if a fluorophore displays time-dependent solvent relaxation it may also show a time-dependent decrease in its rotational rate. A decreased rate of rotation could result from the increased interaction with polar solvent molecules which occurs as a result of solvent relaxation. The decays of anisotropy predicted from our model closely mimic those often observed for fluorophores which are bound to macromolecules. For example, the decays are more complex than a single exponential, and the time-resolved anisotropy can display a limiting value which does not decay to zero. The effect of solvent relaxation upon the rates of rotational diffusion is expected to be most dramatic for solvent-sensitive fluorophores in a viscous environment. These conditions are frequently encountered for fluorophore-macromolecule complexes. Consideration of the linkage between solvent relaxation and rotational diffusion leads to two unusual predictions. First even spherical fluorophores in an isotropic environment could display multi- or nonexponential decays of fluorescence anisotropy. Secondly, for the special case in which the fluorophore dipole moment decreases upon excitation, the theory predicts that the anisotropy decay rate may increase with time subsequent to pulsed excitation. The predictions of this theory are consistent with published data on the effects of red-edge excitation upon the apparent rotational rates of fluorophores in polar solvents.     

Resolution of initially excited and relaxed states of tryptophan fluorescence by differential-wavelength deconvolution of time-resolved fluorescence decays

We describe a new procedure for the analysis of time-resolved decays of fluorescence intensity. This procedure was used to resolve the emission spectra of the initially excited and solvent relaxed states of a tryptophan derivative in viscous solution. Specifically, we examined N-acetyl-l-tryptophanamide (AcTrpNH₂) in viscous and nonviscous solutions of propylene glycol. Time-resolved decays of fluorescence intensity were collected at wavelengths across the emission spectra. Instead of the usual procedure of deconvolving these data with the time profile of the exciting pulse, we deconvolved these data using the response observed on the short-wavelength side of the emission. If one assumes that this emission results only from the initially excited state (F), then the nonzero decay time calculated using deconvolution is that of the solvent relaxed state (R). For our specific case of AcTrpNH₂ the emission spectra of the F and R states overlap at most wavelengths longer than the short-wavelength side of the emission (310 nm). As a result, differential-wavelength deconvolution yields two lifetimes and amplitudes, one pair representing the relaxed state and the other the initially excited state. The latter appears as a zero-decay-time component whose amplitude can be readily quantified. The wavelength-dependent amplitude of this zero-lifetime component can be used to calculate the emission spectrum of the F state and. by difference, the emission spectrum of the relaxed state. For AcTrpNH₂ in propylene glycol at ?20°C the emission maxima of the F and R states are near 320 and 350 nm, respectively, and the relative proportion of the emission from each state was near 50%. At lower temperatures the emission from the F state becomes dominant and at high temperatures the emission from the R state dominates. We note that this resolution of states is somewhat arbitrary because we assumed a two-state model and the absence of solvent relaxed emission at 310 nm. Nonetheless, differential-wavelength deconvolution simplifies and facilitates the analysis of time-resolved fluorescence data from samples which undergo excited state reactions. Moreover, this deconvolution procedure considerably simplifies the determination of the kinetic constants for reversible excited state reactions. The application of differential-wavelength deconvolution does not increase the time reqaired for data acquisition. This differential analysis procedure should enhance the usefulness and precision of pulse fluorometric methods in studies of nanosecond time scale processes in proteins and membranes.     

A high-throughput direct fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based assay for analyzing apoptotic proteases using flow cytometry and fluorescence lifetime measurements

Cytometry is a versatile and powerful method applicable to different fields, particularly pharmacology and biomedical studies. Based on the data obtained, cytometric studies are classified into high-throughput (HTP) or high-content screening (HCS) groups. However, assays combining the advantages of both are required to facilitate research. In this study, we developed a high-throughput system to profile cellular populations in terms of time- or dose-dependent responses to apoptotic stimulations because apoptotic inducers are potent anticancer drugs. We previously established assay systems involving protease to monitor live cells for apoptosis using tunable fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based bioprobes. These assays can be used for microscopic analyses or fluorescence-activated cell sorting. In this study, we developed FRET-based bioprobes to detect the activity of the apoptotic markers caspase-3 and caspase-9 via changes in bioprobe fluorescence lifetimes using a flow cytometer for direct estimation of FRET efficiencies. Different patterns of changes in the fluorescence lifetimes of these markers during apoptosis were observed, indicating a relationship between discrete steps in the apoptosis process. The findings demonstrate the feasibility of evaluating collective cellular dynamics during apoptosis.     

A homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence detection of telomerase activity

The homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence (HTRF) technology is an assay developed to study the interaction between biomolecules. This detection system is based on a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between a Tris-bipyridine europium cryptate used as a long-lived fluorescent donor and a chemically modified allophycocyanine as acceptor. This technology is characterized by both a spectral selectivity and a temporal selectivity (due to the time-resolved mode), ensuring a highly specific signal. Here a europium-cryptate-labeled deoxyuridine triphosphate analogue (K-11-dUTP) was used to monitor the extension reaction on a biotinylated oligonucleotide used as substrate for telomerase in a telomeric repeat amplification protocol (TRAP). After the addition of an allophycocyanine-streptavidin conjugate, the extension products give rise to a FRET between the incorporated cryptate moieties and the allophycocyanine acceptor that then displays a specific long-lived emission. The TRAP-HTRF format was validated as a screening tool by using a 2,6-diaminoanthraquinone analogue, a known inhibitor of telomerase activity. The IC(50) measured was consistent with the reported values, showing the convenience of the HTRF technology for the study of telomerase activity and inhibitors.     

荧光能量转移技术在生物学研究中的应用

荧光能量转移(FRET)是指两个携带不同荧光基团的大分子在相互间距离足够近时(10～100A)所发生的能量非放射性地由一个荧光基团向另一个荧光基团转移的现象。结合绿色荧光蛋白的发现,FRET技术可用于检测生物大分子中不同亚基的位置和生物大分子间的相互作用。近年来,FRET技术在生物学研究中的突破性进展是在活体细胞中实时监测生物大分子之间的相互作用。本文就绿色荧光蛋白的发现,FRET技术的原理、研究进展和应用前景作简要综述。     

Maximum likelihood method for the analysis of time-resolved fluorescence decay curves

The usefulness of fluorescence techniques for the study of macromolecular structure and dynamics depends on the accuracy and sensitivity of the methods used for data analysis. Many methods for data analysis have been proposed and used, but little attention has been paid to the maximum likelihood method, generally known as the most powerful statistical method for parameter estimation. In this paper we study the properties and behavior of maximum likelihood estimates by using simulated fluorescence intensity decay data. We show that the maximum likelihood method provides generally more accurate estimates of lifetimes and fractions than does the standard least-squares approach especially when the lifetime ratios between individual components are small. Three novelties to the field of fluorescence decay analysis are also introduced and studied in this paper: a) discretization of the convolution integral based on the generalized integral mean value theorem: b) the likelihood ratio test as a tool to determine the number of exponential decay components in a given decay profile; and c) separability and detectability indices which provide measures on how accurately, a particular decay component can be detected. Based on the experience gained from this and from our previous study of the Padé-Laplace method, we make some recommendations on how the complex problem of deconvolution and parameter estimation of multiexponential functions might be approached in an experimental setting. Offprint requests to: F. G. Prendergast     

Contributions of fluorescence techniques to understanding G protein-coupled receptor dimerisation

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest class of eukaryotic cell-surface receptors and, over the last decade, it has become clear that they are capable of dimerisation. Whilst many biochemical and biophysical approaches have been used to study dimerisation, fluorescence techniques, including Förster resonance energy transfer and single molecule fluorescence, have been key players. Here we review recent contributions of fluorescence techniques to investigate GPCR dimers, including dimerisation in cell membranes and native tissues, the effect of ligand binding on dimerisation and the kinetics of dimer formation and dissociation. The challenges of studying multicomponent membrane protein systems have led to the development and refinement of many fluorescence assays, allowing the functional consequences of receptor dimerisation to be investigated and individual protein molecules to be imaged in the membranes of living cells. It is likely that the fluorescence techniques described here will be of use for investigating many other multicomponent membrane protein systems.     

Spectrally resolved time-correlated single photon counting: a novel approach for characterization of endogenous fluorescence in isolated cardiac myocytes

A new setup for time-resolved fluorescence micro-spectroscopy of cells, based on multi-dimensional time-correlated single photon counting, was designed and tested. Here we demonstrate that the spectrometer allows fast and reproducible measurements of endogenous flavin fluorescence measured directly in living cardiac cells after excitation with visible picosecond laser diodes. Two complementary approaches for the analysis of spectrally- and time-resolved autofluorescence data are presented, comprising the fluorescence decay fitting by exponential series and the time-resolved emission spectroscopy analysis. In isolated cardiac myocytes, we observed three distinct lifetime pools with characteristic lifetime values spanning from picosecond to nanosecond range and the time-dependent red shift of the autofluorescence emission spectra. We compared obtained results to in vitro recordings of free flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and FAD in lipoamide dehydrogenase (LipDH). The developed setup combines the strength of both spectral and fluorescence lifetime analysis and provides a solid base for the study of complex systems with intrinsic fluorescence, such as identification of the individual flavinoprotein components in living cardiac cells. This approach therefore constitutes an important instrumental advancement towards redox fluorimetry of living cardiomyocytes, with the perspective of its applications in the investigation of oxidative metabolic state under pathophysiological conditions, such as ischemia and/or metabolic disorders.     

The recovery of dipolar relaxation times from fluorescence decays as a tool to probe local dynamics in single tryptophan proteins

The dipolar relaxation process induced by the excitation of the single tryptophan residue of four proteins (staphylococcal nuclease, ribonuclease-T1, phosphofructokinase, and superoxide dismutase) has been studied by dynamic fluorescence measurements. A new algorithm taking into account the relaxation effect has been applied to the fluorescence decay function obtained by phase-shift and demodulation data. This approach only requires that fluorescence be collected through the whole emission spectrum, avoiding the time-consuming determination of the data at different emission wavelengths, as usual with time-resolved emission spectroscopy. The results nicely match those reported in the literature for staphylococcal nuclease and ribonuclease-T1, demonstrating the validity of the model. Furthermore, this new methodology provides an alternative explanation for the complex decay of phosphofructokinase and human superoxide dismutase suggesting the presence of a relaxation process even in proteins that lack a lifetime-dependent spectral shift. These findings may have important implications on the analysis of small-scale protein dynamics, since dielectric relaxation directly probes a local structural change around the excited state of tryptophan.     

Conformational states of the switch I region of Ha-ras-p21 in hinge residue mutants studied by fluorescence lifetime and fluorescence anisotropy measurements

The hinge residues (Val29 and Ile36) of the switch I region (also known as the effector loop) of the Ha-ras-p21 protein have been mutated to glycines to accelerate the conformational changes typical for the effector loop. In this work, we have studied the influence of the combined mutations on the steady-state structure of the switch I region of the protein in both the inactive GDP-bound conformation as in the active GTP-bound conformation. Here, we use the fluorescence properties of the single tryptophan residue in the Y32W mutant of Ha-ras-p21. This mutant has already been used extensively as a reference form of the protein. Reducing the size of the side chains of the hinge residues not only accelerates the conformational changes but also affects the steady-state structures of the effector loop as indicated by the changes in the fluorescence properties. A thorough analysis of the fluorescence changes (quantum yield, lifetimes, etc.) proves that these changes are from a reshuffling between the rotamer populations of Trp. The population reshuffling is caused by the overall structural rearrangement along the switch I region. The effects are clearly more pronounced in the inactive GDP-bound conformation than in the active GTP-bound conformation. The effect of both mutations seems to be additive in the GDP-bound state, but cooperative in the GTP-bound state.     

Red-edge-excitation fluorescence spectroscopy of single-tryptophan proteins

With the aim of finding non-equilibrium dipole-relaxational electronic excited states of tryptophan residues in proteins the dependence of the fluorescence emission maximum on excitation wavelength was studied for several proteins containing a single tryptophan residue per molecule. Spectral shifts upon red-edge excitation are not observed for short wavelength-emitting proteins (azurin, two-calcium form of whiting parvalbumin, ribonucleases C ₂ and T ₁). This may be because of the non-polar environment of the tryptophan residues in these proteins or because of the absence of dipole-orientational broadening of spectra. The effect was also not found for proteins emitting at long wavelengths (max. at 341–350 nm) —melittin at low ionic strength, IT-Aj1 protease inhibitor, myelin basic protein. In these proteins, the tryptophan residues are exposed to the rapidly relaxing aqueous solvent. Spectral shifts associated with red-edge excitation are observed for proteins emitting in the medium spectral range — human serum albumin in the N and F forms, IT-Aj1 protease inhibitor at pH 2.9, melittin at high ionic strength as well as the albumin-dodecylsulfate complex. This suggests the existence in these proteins of a distribution of microstates for tryptophan environment with various orientation of dipoles and of slow (on the nanosecond time scale) mobility of the field of these dipoles. As a result the emission proceeds from electronic excited states which are not at equilibrium.     

An ion-insensitive cAMP biosensor for long term quantitative ratiometric fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements under variable physiological conditions

Ratiometric measurements with FRET-based biosensors in living cells using a single fluorescence excitation wavelength are often affected by a significant ion sensitivity and the aggregation behavior of the FRET pair. This is an important problem for quantitative approaches. Here we report on the influence of physiological ion concentration changes on quantitative ratiometric measurements by comparing different FRET pairs for a cAMP-detecting biosensor. We exchanged the enhanced CFP/enhanced YFP FRET pair of an established Epac1-based biosensor by the fluorophores mCerulean/mCitrine. In the case of enhanced CFP/enhanced YFP, we showed that changes in proton, and (to a lesser extent) chloride ion concentrations result in incorrect ratiometric FRET signals, which may exceed the dynamic range of the biosensor. Calcium ions have no direct, but an indirect pH-driven effect by mobilizing protons. These ion dependences were greatly eliminated when mCerulean/mCitrine fluorophores were used. For such advanced FRET pairs the biosensor is less sensitive to changes in ion concentration and allows consistent cAMP concentration measurements under different physiological conditions, as occur in metabolically active cells. In addition, we verified that the described FRET pair exchange increased the dynamic range of the FRET efficiency response. The time window for stable experimental conditions was also prolonged by a faster biosensor expression rate in transfected cells and a greatly reduced tendency to aggregate, which reduces cytotoxicity. These properties were verified in functional tests in single cells co-expressing the biosensor and the 5-HT(1A) receptor.     

Solvent effects on fluorescence properties of protochlorophyll and its derivatives with various porphyrin side chains

Fluorescence spectra and fluorescence lifetimes of protochlorophyll (Pchl) were measured in organic solvents having different physical and chemical properties and were analyzed taking into account the nonspecific (dependent on bulk solvent parameters), and specific (e.g. H bonds, Mg coordination) solvent–solute interactions. The energy of the fluorescence emission band decreased, while the Stokes shift increased for increasing solvent orientation polarizability, which is a function of both the dielectric constant (ε) and the refractive index (n). The extent of the dependence of the Stokes shift on solvent orientation polarizability was higher in protic (i.e. those able to form hydrogen-binding) than in aprotic solvents. High value of the Stokes shift was also observed in pyridine and methanol, i.e. in solvents hexacoordinating the central Mg atom. The fluorescence decay of Pchl was monoexponential in all of the investigated solvents. The fluorescence lifetime decreased for increasing solvent orientation polarizability from 5.5 ± 0.1 ns in 1,4-dioxane to 3.3 ± 0.1 ns in methanol. Longer lifetime values were observed in the case of aprotic solvents than in protic solvents. The hexacoordination of Mg had no effect on the fluorescence lifetime. The present data are discussed with respect to results found for protochlorophyllide (Pchlide) (My?liwa-Kurdziel et al. in Photochem Photobiol 79:62–67, 2004), and they indicate that the presence of phytol chain in the porphyrin ring influences the spectral properties of the whole chromophore. This is the first complex analysis comparing the fluorescence emission and fluorescence lifetimes of purified Pchl and Pchlide.     

Applications of dual-color fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy in antibody binding studies

Two-photon dual-color fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (DC-FCCS) was applied to study the binding interactions of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and protein antigens. We measured the binding constant of the interaction of a 32-amino acid brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) with a mAbs and demonstrated the utility of DC-FCCS in studies of antibody sandwiches, trimolecular formations, where two different antibodies bind the same antigen simultaneously. We also show the use of DC-FCCS for monitoring competitive displacement of the labeled antibody in antibody-antigen complexes and subsequent determination of the pertinent dissociation rate (off-rate). The off-rate measurements were performed for two mAbs toward tissue inhibitor 1 of metalloproteinases (TIMP-1). From a methodological perspective, selection of the best labeling protocols and careful optimization of the FCCS instrumentation are essential to achieve the highest cross-correlation signal. When working in vitro, it is practical to generate a complete binding curve using the normalized cross-correlation signal and then fit the experimental points to a binding model. DC-FCCS offers the sensitivity and all other advantages of a solution phase fluorescence-based technique. For systems containing proteins of a similar size that interact without substantial changes in the fluorescence intensity, DC-FCCS serves as a preferred means of measuring solution phase binding constants.     

Development of an open sandwich fluoroimmunoassay based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer

We have developed a sensitive, one-step, homogeneous open sandwich fluoroimmunoassay (OsFIA) based on fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) and luminescent semiconductor quantum dots (QDs). In this FRET assay, estrogen receptor beta (ER-beta) antigen was incubated with QD-labeled anti-ER-beta monoclonal antibody and Alexa Fluor (AF)-labeled anti-ER polyclonal antibody for 30 min, followed by FRET measurement. The dye separation distance was estimated between 80 and 90 A. The current method is rapid, simple, and highly sensitive, and it did not require the bound/free reagent separation steps and solid-phase carriers. A concentration as low as 0.05 nM (2.65 ng/ml) receptor was detected with linearity. In addition, the assay was performed with commercial antibodies. This assay provides a convenient alternative to conventional, laborious sandwich immunoassays.     

Photoinhibition of photosystems I and II using chlorophyll fluorescence measurements

In this study the photoinhibition of photosystems (PS) I and II caused by exposure to high intensity light in oat (Avena sativa, var Prevision) is measured by the emission of chlorophyll fluorescence in intact leaves adapted to darkness. The maximal quantum yield of PS II was lower in plants grown under high light intensity than in plants grown under low intensity, which indicates that PS II is photoinhibited by such conditions. PS I was more stable than PS II in plants exposed to strong light for a moderate time (five photoperiods) since the oxidised plastoquinone pool size under far-red (FR) light was similar in plants grown under high light intensity to plants grown under low intensity, probably as a result of the cyclic electron flow around PS I being stimulated in response to high light intensity. However, over longer times (10 photoperiods) the PS I was photoinhibited, since the oxidised plastoquinone pool size under FR light increased as a consequence of the decrease in PS I activity caused by high light intensity. This practical is intended for advanced students of plant biochemistry and plant physiology.     

Detection of lipid domains in model and cell membranes by fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy

The discovery that the lipids constituting the plasma membrane are not randomly distributed, but instead are able to form laterally segregated lipid domains with different properties has given hints how the formation of such lipid domains influences and regulates many processes occurring at the plasma membrane. While in model systems these lipid domains can be easily accessed and their properties studied, it is still challenging to determine the properties of cholesterol rich lipid domains, the so called “Rafts”, in the plasma membrane of living cells due to their small size and transient nature. One promising technique to address such issues is fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) microscopy, as spatially resolved images make the visualization of the lateral lipid distribution possible, while at the same time the fluorescence lifetime of a membrane probe yields information about the bilayer structure and organization of the lipids in lipid domains and various properties like preferential protein-protein interactions or the enrichment of membrane probes. This review aims to give an overview of the techniques underlying FLIM probes which can be applied to investigate the formation of lipid domains and their respective properties in model membrane and biological systems. Also a short technical introduction into the techniques of a FLIM microscope is given.     

Lateral heterogeneity in human platelet plasma membrane and lipids from the time-resolved fluorescence of trans-parinaric acid

We have investigated the complex behaviour of the time resolved fluorescence intensity and anisotropy of trans-parinaric acid, incorporated into fragments of the plasma membrane of human platelets and in multibilayers of lipids extracted from that membrane. It is shown that the observation of anisotropies that increase at long times can be satisfactorily interpreted by assuming two populations of the fluorescence probe with distinct lifetimes, rotational relaxation times and order parameters. The heterogeneous probe distribution was correlated with a similar heterogeneity in the lipid composition of the bilayer, modulated by temperature. Below 35°C an important fraction of the lipids of the plasma membrane are apparently in the form of solid-like domains (20% at 20°C). However, in the physiological temperature range that solid/fluid heterogeneity is almost negligible. Since these effects were also observed in multibilayers of lipids from the platelet membrane, the formation of solid-like clusters appears to arise from lipid-lipid interactions only, and most probably involving cholesterol. These results support the previous finding of a lateral phase separation for temperatures less than 37°C described by Gordon et al. (1983) in a spin-probe study of the platelet plasma membrane.Abbreviations DPH 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene - DPPC dipalmitoyl-phosphatidylcholine - tPnA trans-parinaric acid Offprint requests to: A. U. Acuña     

Thermal stability of a flavoprotein assessed from associative analysis of polarized time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy

Upon gradually heating a particular mutant of the flavoprotein NADH peroxidase, it was found from the peculiar time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy pattern of the flavin prosthetic group (FAD) that, at elevated temperature, FAD is released from the tetrameric enzyme. Since in this case a mixture of free and enzyme-bound FAD contributes to the time-dependent fluorescence anisotropy, its analysis can only be accomplished by an associative fitting model, in which specific fluorescence lifetimes of both species are linked to specific correlation times. In this letter the general approach to the associative polarized fluorescence decay analysis is described. The procedure can be used for other flavoproteins to determine the temperature at which the onset of thermal denaturation will start, leading to release of the flavin prosthetic group. Received: 20 November 1998 / Revised version: 6 April 1999 / Accepted: 8 April 1999     

Membrane lipid domains and rafts: current applications of fluorescence lifetime spectroscopy and imaging

Membrane microdomains and their involvement in cellular processes are part of the current paradigm of biomembranes. However, a better characterization of domains, namely lipid rafts, is needed. In this review, it is shown how the use of time-resolved fluorescence, with the adequate parameters and probes, helps elucidating the type, number, fraction, composition and size of lipid phases and domains in multicomponent model systems. The determination of phase diagrams for lipid mixtures containing sphingolipids and/or cholesterol is exemplified. The use of fluorescence quenching and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) are also illustrated. Strategies for studying protein-induced domains are presented. The advantages of using single point microscopic decays and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) in systems with three-phase coexistence are explained. Finally, the introduction of FLIM allows studies in live cell membranes, and the nature of the microdomains observed is readily elucidated due to the information retrieved from fluorescence lifetimes.