Effects of Traffic on Elk Use of Wildlife Underpasses in Arizona

ABSTRACT We used video surveillance at 4 wildlife underpasses along 27 km of Arizona State Route 260, USA, to monitor elk (Cervus elaphus) responses to traffic volume and traffic type during underpass use. Passage rates at the highest traffic category (>10–27 vehicles/min) were not lower than passage rates when no vehicles were present, whereas passage rates at low, intermittent traffic volume (>0–1 vehicles/min) were 15% lower. Once elk entered an underpass, semi-trailer trucks were 4 times more likely than passenger vehicles to cause flight behavior when traffic levels were intermittent versus when traffic was continuous. Overall, traffic volumes of >10–27 vehicles per minute did not decrease the effectiveness of wildlife underpasses as a means of mitigating elk population subdivision. However, if flight away from underpasses at intermediate traffic levels causes elk to cross the highway at other points and thereby increases the potential for costly elk-vehicle collisions, we recommend that managers consider measures to reduce traffic noise and visual stimuli, especially those caused by semi-trailer trucks.     

Has the final countdown to wildlife extinction in Northern Central African Republic begun?

The wildlife populations of Northern Central African Republic experienced precipitous declines during the 1970s and 1980s. While anecdotes coming out of the region indicate that the wildlife populations remain under serious threat, little is known about their status. An aerial sample count was carried out in the Northern Central African Republic at the end of the dry season in June 2005 and covered an 85,000 km² complex landscape containing national parks, hunting reserves and community hunting areas. Results show a dramatic decline of wildlife since the previous survey in 1985. In 20 years, large mammals’ numbers decreased by 65%, probably because of poaching and diseases brought by illegal cattle transhumance. Elephant (Loxodonta africana) and Buffon kob (Kobus kob) populations showed the greatest decline (over 80% each), while buffalo (Syncerus caffer), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) and Giant Lord’s Derby Eland (Taurotragus derbianus) populations seem stable or increasing over these last 20 years. The analysis of the wildlife population distribution by status of the different types of protected areas (national parks, hunting areas) showed that individual encounter rates of elephant and buffalo were lower in national parks than in neighbouring hunting areas, while those for roan, giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) and Buffon kob were higher in the national parks.     

Survey of Pestivirus infection in wild and domestic ungulates from south-western Italian Alps

The transmission of pestiviruses between domestic and wild ruminants has not been documented in communal alpine pastures shared between wildlife and livestock. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of domestic and wild ungulates species from Varaita Valley (SW Italian Alps) in the epidemiology of Pestivirus infections. Sera from free-ranging alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) were collected from 1994 to 2009 and 2001 to 2009, respectively. Also, sera from cattle and sheep sampled in 2009 were studied. Sera were tested for the presence of antibodies against pestivirus with an ELISA assay. Sera from positive animals were subsequently tested with a comparative virus neutralisation test using the BVDV-NADL and BDV-137/4 strains. Sera were tested for the presence of pestiviral antigen and the presence of viral RNA with a commercial ELISA assay and RT-PCR. Antibodies against Pestivirus were detected in 132 out of 312 (42%) chamois, in 30 out of 175 (17%) cattle and 6 out of 24 (25%) sheep. No antibodies were found in roe deer. No Pestivirus antigen or RNA was detected in any of the samples. Results indicate circulation of pestiviruses among the studied chamois, cattle and sheep populations. However the role of wild ungulates in the dynamics of Pestivirus infection is still unknown and monitoring the presence of these viruses in wild ungulates would be of importance, especially in the chamois population, where pestiviruses seem to circulate extensively.     

Estimating Neospora caninum prevalence in wildlife populations using Bayesian inference

Prevalence of disease in wildlife populations, which is necessary for developing disease models and conducting epidemiologic analyses, is often understudied. Laboratory tests used to screen for diseases in wildlife populations often are validated only for domestic animals. Consequently, the use of these tests for wildlife populations may lead to inaccurate estimates of disease prevalence. We demonstrate the use of Bayesian latent class analysis (LCA) in determining the specificity and sensitivity of a competitive enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA; VMRD^®, Inc.) serologic test used to identify exposure to Neospora caninum (hereafter N. caninum) in three wildlife populations in southeastern Ohio, USA. True prevalence of N. caninum exposure in these populations was estimated to range from 0.1% to 3.1% in American bison (Bison bison), 51.0% to 53.8% in Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus), and 40.0% to 45.9% in white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). The accuracy of the cELISA in American bison and Père David's deer was estimated to be close to the 96% sensitivity and 99% specificity reported by the manufacturer. Sensitivity in white‐tailed deer, however, ranged from 78.9% to 99.9%. Apparent prevalence of N. caninum from the test results is not equal to the true prevalence in white‐tailed deer and Père David's deer populations. Even when these species inhabit the same community, the true prevalence in the two deer populations differed from the true prevalence in the American bison population. Variances in prevalence for some species suggest differences in the epidemiology of N. caninum for these colocated populations. Bayesian LCA methods could be used as in this example to overcome some of the constraints on validating tests in wildlife species. The ability to accurately evaluate disease status and prevalence in a population improves our understanding of the epidemiology of multihost pathogen systems at the community level.     

Using contact networks to explore mechanisms of parasite transmission in wildlife

A hallmark assumption of traditional approaches to disease modelling is that individuals within a given population mix uniformly and at random. However, this assumption does not always hold true; contact heterogeneity or preferential associations can have a substantial impact on the duration, size, and dynamics of epidemics. Contact heterogeneity has been readily adopted in epidemiological studies of humans, but has been less studied in wildlife. While contact network studies are becoming more common for wildlife, their methodologies, fundamental assumptions, host species, and parasites vary widely. The goal of this article is to review how contact networks have been used to study macro‐ and microparasite transmission in wildlife. The review will: (i) explain why contact heterogeneity is relevant for wildlife populations; (ii) explore theoretical and applied questions that contact networks have been used to answer; (iii) give an overview of unresolved methodological issues; and (iv) suggest improvements and future directions for contact network studies in wildlife.     

Disease hazard identification and assessment associated with wildlife population declines

Disease is increasingly being recognised as a risk factor in declining wildlife populations around the globe. However, there are limited protocols to assess disease risks in declining wildlife. Using epidemiological principles, we define a step‐by‐step framework to complete this complex and critical task. As an example, we assessed the potential role of diseases in relation to the decline of the woylie or brush‐tailed bettong (Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi) in Western Australia. Between 1999 and 2006, woylie populations declined by 90%. The wildlife disease risk assessment began with a list of all known or suspected diseases to which the woylie, a species of macropod, is susceptible. This list was assessed against the spatial, temporal and demographic characteristics of the decline. Diseases causing widespread and high mortalities or debilitation leading to predation received high scores. Based on this assessment, priority diseases or pathogens for investigation identified were haemoparasites, gastrointestinal helminths, Neospora caninum, Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii), Encephalomyocarditis virus, Macropod Orbiviruses (Wallal virus and Warrego virus), Macropod Herpesviruses (Macropodid herpesvirus 1 and 2) and Salmonella spp.     

Host age,sex, and reproductive seasonality affect nematode parasitism in wild Japanese macaques

Parasites are characteristically aggregated within hosts, but identifying the mechanisms underlying such aggregation can be difficult in wildlife populations. We examined the influence of host age and sex over an annual cycle on the eggs per gram of feces (EPG) of nematode parasites infecting wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui) on Yakushima Island. Five species of nematode were recorded from 434 fecal samples collected from an age-structured group of 50 individually recognizable macaques. All parasites exhibited aggregated EPG distributions. The age–infection profiles of all three directly transmitted species (Oesophagostomum aculeatum, Strongyloides fuelleborni, and Trichuris trichiura) exhibited convex curves, but concavity better characterized the age–infection curves of the two trophically transmitted species (Streptopharagus pigmentatus and Gongylonema pulchrum). There was a male bias in EPG and prevalence of infection with directly transmitted species, except in the prevalence of O. aculeatum, and no sex bias in the other parasites. Infection with O. aculeatum showed a female bias in prevalence among young adults, and additional interactions with sex and seasonality show higher EPG values in males during the mating season (fall) but in females during the birth season (spring). These patterns suggest that an immunosuppressive role by reproductive hormones may be regulating direct, but not indirect, life-cycle parasites. Exposure at an early age may trigger an immune response that affects all nematodes, but trophically transmitted species appear to accumulate thereafter. Although it is difficult to discern clear mechanistic explanations for parasite distributions in wildlife populations, it is critical to begin examining these patterns in host species that are increasingly endangered by anthropogenic threats.     

A Legacy of Low-Impact Logging does not Elevate Prevalence of Potentially Pathogenic Protozoa in Free-Ranging Gorillas and Chimpanzees in the Republic of Congo: Logging and Parasitism in African Apes

Many studies have examined the long-term effects of selective logging on the abundance and diversity of free-ranging primates. Logging is known to reduce the abundance of some primate species through associated hunting and the loss of food trees for frugivores; however, the potential role of pathogens in such primate population declines is largely unexplored. Selective logging results in a suite of alterations in host ecology and forest structure that may alter pathogen dynamics in resident wildlife populations. In addition, environmental pollution with human fecal material may present a risk for wildlife infections with zoonotic protozoa, such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia. To better understand this interplay, we compared patterns of infection with these potentially pathogenic protozoa in sympatric western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) in the undisturbed Goualougo Triangle of Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park and the adjacent previously logged Kabo Concession in northern Republic of Congo. No Cryptosporidium infections were detected in any of the apes examined and prevalence of infection with Giardia was low (3.73% overall) and did not differ between logged and undisturbed forest for chimpanzees or gorillas. These results provide a baseline for prevalence of these protozoa in forest-dwelling African apes and suggest that low-intensity logging may not result in long-term elevated prevalence of potentially pathogenic protozoa.     

Rapid Sustainability Modeling for Raptors by Radiotagging and DNA-Fingerprinting

Abstract: Sustainable use of wildlife is crucial to ensuring persistence of natural resources. We used age-specific survival and breeding data to parameterize a demographic model for a harvested Kazakh saker falcon (Falco cherrug) population by radiotagging juveniles and estimating adult turnover with DNA-fingerprinting during 1993–1997. We gathered similar data during 1990–1998 to model populations of British buzzards (Buteo buteo), and during 1980–1998 to model populations of Swedish goshawks (Accipiter gentilis). Leg-bands and implanted microtransponders provided ways to test for bias and to estimate the harvest of sakers for falconry. Despite an estimated minimum first-year survival of only 23%, the observed productivity of 3.14 young per clutch would sustain a saker population (i.e., λ = 1) with a breeding rate (at laying) of only 0.63 for adults or with a residual juvenile yield of 37% if all adults breed. Higher first-year survival rates for goshawks and buzzards correlated with juvenile yields of up to 71%, but no more than half as many individuals if adults also were harvested. An annual population decline of 40% for sakers in southern Kazakhstan could be explained by observed productivity of only 0.71 young per clutch if there was also an estimated harvest of 55% of adults. This study shows that demographic models such as these can now be built rapidly if nestlings are fitted with reliable and safe radiotags and adult turnover is estimated from genetic analyses or other techniques.     

Participatory wildlife surveys in communal lands: a case study from Simanjiro,Tanzania

It is widely accepted that protected areas alone are not sufficient to conserve wildlife populations particularly for migratory or wide‐ranging species. In this study, we assess the population density of migratory species in the Tarangire–Simanjiro Ecosystem by conducting a ground census using DISTANCE sampling. We focus on the Simanjiro Plains which are used as a dispersal area by wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and zebra (Equus burchellii). We demonstrate that DISTANCE sampling can provide precise estimates of population density and is an affordable method for monitoring wildlife populations over time. We stress the importance of involving local communities in monitoring programmes across landscapes that incorporate communal lands as well as protected areas.     

Genetic and clonal diversity in Korean populations ofVitex rotundifolia (Verbenaceae)

Vitex rotundifolia L.f. is a woody perennial and has sexual and asexual modes of reproduction. Allozyme study was conducted on 550 plants in 13 Korean populations. The levels of genetic variability and divergence within and among populations, respectively, are considerably lower and higher than the mean values for woody plants with similar life history tralts. Mean percentage of polymorphic loci (P _P), mean number of alleles per locus (A _P), and mean genetic diversity (He _P) within populations ofV. rotundifolia were: 16.7%, 1.21, and 0.047. On average, about 79% of the total variation inV. rotundifolia was common to all populations (meanG _ST=0.208). In addition, significant differences in allele frequencies among populations were found in all polymorphic loci examined (P<0.001). On the other hand, levels of genotypic diversity within and among populations were moderate. About 44% (18/41) of multilocus genotypes were “local genotypes” (genotypes occurring in only one population), whereas only one “widespread genotype” (genotypes occurring in more than 75% of the populations) were detected. The mean number of multilocus genotypes per population (G) and mean genotypic diversity index (D _G) were 8.4 and 0.74, respectively. Most common multilocus genotypes found in populations were homozygous for five polymorphic loci. The abundance of ramets of these genets is responsible for the low levels of expected heterozygosity within populations. The results indicate that clonal reproduction may act as an enhancer of genetic drift by reducing effective size of local populations ofV. rotundifolia.     

Population dynamics of Northern Gannets in North America, 1984–2009

Northern Gannet (Morus bassanus) colonies (N = 6) in North America have been regularly censused since the late‐1960s. Monitoring populations of a top‐predator like gannets provides insight into possible changes in the marine environment and contributes to an understanding of their demography. We report the results of aerial censuses of gannet colonies conducted from 1984 to 2009. Standard methods were used and involved making high‐quality photographs of colonies from a fixed‐wing aircraft, and subsequently counting apparently occupied sites (AOS) in the photographs. As of 2009, the breeding population of gannets in North America was estimated to be 116 825 pairs, or ～27% of the world population. From 1984 to 2009, the population grew at an average rate of 4.4% per annum and this growth was likely the result of continued population recovery after acute persecution in the past. Growth rates began to slow during the latter part of our study, likely due to density‐dependent effects and reductions in food availability. Despite the growth of the North American gannet population, gannets have not established new colonies, possibly because populations had been so depressed that growth could be accommodated within existing colonies.     

Implications of chronic wasting disease,cougar predation,and reduced recruitment for elk management

Emerging diseases and expanding carnivore populations may have profound implications for ungulate harvest management and population regulation. To better understand effects of chronic wasting disease (CWD) and cougar (Puma concolor) predation, we studied mortality and recruitment of elk (Cervus elaphus) at Wind Cave National Park (WICA) during 2005–2009. We marked 202 elk (83 subadult M and 119 subadult and ad F) with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars, observed 28 deaths during 74,220 days of monitoring, and investigated 42 additional deaths of unmarked elk found dead. Survival rates were similar for males and females and averaged 0.863 (SE = 0.025) annually. Leading causes of mortality included hunting (0.065, SE = 0.019), CWD (0.034, SE = 0.012), and cougar predation (0.029, SE = 0.012). Marked elk killed by hunters and cougars typically were in good physical condition and not infected with CWD. Effects of mortality on population growth were exacerbated by low rates of pregnancy (subadults = 9.5%, SE = 6.6%; ad = 76.9%, SE = 4.2%) and perinatal survival (0.49, SE = 0.085 from 1 Feb to 1 Sep). Chronic wasting disease, increased predation, and reduced recruitment reduced the rate of increase for elk at WICA to approximately λ = 1.00 (SE = 0.027) during the past decade. Lower rates of increase are mitigating effects of elk on park vegetation, other wildlife, and neighboring lands and will facilitate population control, but may reduce opportunities for elk hunting outside the park. © 2011 The Wildlife Society     

Occupancy of Random Plots by White-Tailed and Gunnison's Prairie Dogs

ABSTRACT Areas occupied by white-tailed prairie dogs (WTPD; Cynomys leucurus) and Gunnison's prairie dogs (GPD; C. gunnisoni) are not well-known in Colorado (USA) and elsewhere. Suitable methodology for monitoring changes in populations of WTPD and GPD over broad areas also has not been well established. We evaluated occupancy modeling methodology to establish baseline occupancy rates for WTPD and GPD in Colorado. We estimated that WTPD occupied 24.1% (SE = 12.8) of 47,710 0.25-km² plots and GPD occupied 7.5% (SE = 1.3) of 158,225 0.25-km² plots in Colorado during 2004 and 2005. Areas reported as colonies in the Colorado Division of Wildlife's database were not good predictors of WTPD and GPD occupancy. Occupancy rates were highest for GPD at intermediate elevations. We estimated detection probabilities for surveys from the ground of 0.760 (SE = 0.042) for WTPD and 0.786 (SE = 0.060) for GPD. Probability of detection for WTPD improved with lower temperature and earlier Julian date, whereas no covariates improved detection rates for GPD. We recommend that wildlife managers use occupancy monitoring to establish status and trends in populations of WTPD and GPD across their range.     

Studying allozyme variation in sexual and apomictic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Taraxacum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pilosella</Emphasis> (Asteraceae) populations

Allozyme spectra of peroxidase, esterase, superoxid dismutase, tyrosinase, alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, and acid phosphatase were examined in populations of sexual (Taraxacum serotinum and Pilosella echioides) and apomictic (T. officinale and P. officinarum) plant species. The heterozygosity in these populations (0.455–0.620) proved to be considerably higher than the average level characteristic of plant populations (0.058–0.185). The populations examined did not differ in the mean phenotype number , i.e., they exhibited the same diversity (3.188–3.380). The proportion of rare phenotypes h also did not differ between the sexual and apomictic species of the same genus, whereas this parameter in the Pilosella populations (0.150–0.174) was significantly higher than in the Taraxacum ones (0.093–0.114). The populations were characterized by numerous isozyme spectra (more than 11 per populations) and displayed multiple allelism (the mean allele frequency was 3.63–4.38 per locus). They exhibited a high percentage of rare (occurring at a frequency lower than 5%) spectra (35–80%). This indicates that agamic complexes, to which these populations belong, may have a more complicated genetic structure of both apomictic and sexual populations than the species that do not belong to agamic complexes.Translated from Genetika, Vol. 41, No. 2, 2005, pp. 203–215.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Kashin, Anfalov, Demochko.     

Factors associated with use of wildlife underpasses and importance of long-term monitoring

We evaluated use of 6 wildlife underpasses (UP) using video camera surveillance along State Route 260 in Arizona, USA. We documented wildlife use and compared successful UP crossings by various species and among UP. From 2002 to 2008, we recorded visits by 15,134 animals of 21 species (16 wildlife, 5 domestic) resulting in 72.4% crossing through UP. Elk (Cervus elaphus) accounted for 68% of recorded animals, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and mule deer (O. hemionus) accounted for 13% and 6%, respectively. As elk and white-tailed deer were the only species adequately represented across all UP, we used logistic regression to further evaluate factors associated with successful use of UP. To evaluate habituation over time we limited this analysis to 5 UP monitored for ≥4 yr. For elk, structural attributes and placement, season, time of day, and months monitored were associated with successful elk UP crossing in year 1, however, by year 4 only structural attributes and placement were significant, suggesting that UP structure and placement likely were of primary importance for successful elk passage. By year 4, probabilities of crossing at 4 of 5 UP converged on >0.70, indicating that given sufficient time to allow habituation, most UP we evaluated appeared to be effective for elk, regardless of structural attributes or placement. For deer, only structural attribute and placement were significant, and aside from one structure did not increase in probability of a successful crossing over time. The overall number of animals and species that crossed SR 260 via UP underscores efficacy of UP in promoting multi-species permeability. Long-term monitoring allows wildlife and highway managers to evaluate adaptation to wildlife crossing structures by different species. Results from this study add to our knowledge of mitigating the impact of highways on wildlife. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

青藏铁路、公路对野生动物活动的影响

2003年8月和2004年8月,在不冻泉保护站(35°17′N;93°16′E)至五道梁(35°13′N;93°04′E)一带调查青藏公路的运营和青藏铁路的建设对野生动物活动的影响,并分析了野生动物对青藏铁路上所建立的动物通道的利用情况。结果表明,青藏铁路的建设增加了青藏公路的交通运输量,青藏公路在铁路修建期间会对藏羚羊(Pantholops hodgsoni)、藏原羚(Procapra picticaudata)和藏野驴(Equus kiang)的活动产生部分影响。同时,野生动物通过自身的适应和行为调节可以减少环境改变产生的影响,如公路两侧动物的活动高峰正好是公路上车流量较少的时段、动物可以利用野生动物通道来通过青藏铁路等。藏野驴、藏羚羊与藏原羚均可利用通道穿越铁路,而藏羚羊对通道的利用频次和通道到公路的距离显著的正相关(p<0.5),大多数的动物通道因其高度、宽度和到公路的距离以及人类活动等因素的影响而不能被动物利用。总的看来,动物能够通过自己的适应和行为调节,可以适应青藏铁路修建对该地区的环境所带来的变化。     

Inbreeding and extinction: The effect of environmental stress and lineage

Human activities are simultaneously decreasing the size of wildlife populations (causing inbreeding) and increasing the level of stress that wildlife populations must face. Inbreeding reduces population fitness and increases extinction risk. However, very little information on the impact of stressful environments on extinction risk under inbreeding is available. We evaluated the impact of full sib inbreeding on extinction risk, using Drosophila melanogaster, in a benign and three stressful environments. The three stressful environments involved the addition to the medium of copper sulfate, methanol or alternating copper sulfate and methanol. There were 128 replicate populations for each of the four treatments. Under inbreeding, extinction rates were significantly higher in all three stressful environments compared with the benign environment. The percent extinct at generation eight (F = 0.826) for the four treatments were: 62.5% in the benign environment, 75.8%in the copper sulfate environment, 82.8% in the methanol environment, and 83.6% in the variable stress environment. However, the extinction rate in the variable stress environment did not differ significantly from the constant stress environments. Highly significant differences, among lineages, in extinction risk were detected. The results of this study indicate that wild populations are more vulnerable to inbreeding than indicated by extrapolation from captive environments.     

Human disturbance and the activity patterns and temporal overlap of tapirs and jaguars in reserves of NW Belize

Human disturbance from tourism and other non-consumptive activities in protected areas may be stressful to wildlife. Animals may move away in space or time to avoid human interaction. For species of particular conservation concern, such as Baird's tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) and jaguars (Panthera onca), a better understanding of how they respond to different levels and types of disturbance is needed in order to manage human visitation to parks in ways that minimize negative outcomes for wildlife. We describe the overlap in activity patterns of tapirs, jaguars, and humans at logged and unlogged sites and at places with low versus high human visitation using camera survey data from protected areas of NW Belize, 2013–2016. Tapirs were nocturnal in all study sites, with > 80% of all tapir detections occurring between 1900 hr and 0500 hr. Their activity patterns were not different in unlogged versus logged sites and did not change with increased human traffic. Jaguars were cathemeral across sites but had more nocturnal activity at the site with the most human impact. Activity pattern overlap between tapirs and jaguars did not differ significantly between logged and unlogged sites, nor between areas with low and high human activity. Human traffic increased from 2013 to 2016 at most of the study locations. In conclusion, this camera trap dataset suggests that non-consumptive human disturbance does not alter the activity patterns of tapirs and jaguars in protected areas lacking hunting pressure.     

Fostering Community-Based Wildlife Health Monitoring and Research in the Canadian North

Many northern Canadians have continued a subsistence lifestyle of wildlife harvesting and, therefore, value sustainable wildlife populations. At a regional wildlife workshop in the Sahtu Settlement Area, Northwest Territories in 2002, elders and community leaders raised concerns regarding wildlife health, food safety, and the effects of climate change on wildlife. They requested that efforts be put toward training youth in science and increasing involvement of hunters and youth in wildlife research. In response, we initiated a long-term, integrated approach to foster community-based wildlife health monitoring and research. Annual trips were made to all schools in the Sahtu from 2003 to 2009 to provide hands-on learning for 250–460 students on a range of wildlife topics. In addition, interviews were conducted with 31 hunters and elders to document their local ecological knowledge of wildlife health and local hunters were trained as monitors to collect tissue samples and measurements to assess body condition and monitor health of harvested caribou (n = 69) and moose (n = 19). In 2007 the program was extended to include participation in the annual caribou hunt held by one community. Each year since 2005, a graduate student and/or a postdoctoral trainee in the veterinary or biological sciences has participated in the program. The program has evolved during the last 6 years in response to community and school input, results of empirical research, hunter feedback, local knowledge, and logistical constraints. The continuity of the program is attributed to the energetic collaboration among diverse partners and a unified approach that responds to identified needs.