Welcome back Janolidae and Antiopella: Improving the understanding of Janolidae and Madrellidae (Cladobranchia,Heterobranchia) with description of four new species

Proctonotidae and Madrellidae are families that belong to the suborder Cladobranchia. Historically, both have been the subjects of taxonomic confusion. Thus, Proctonotidae Gray, 1853, was subsequently named as Zephyrinidae Iredale and O'Donoghue, 1923 and Janolidae Pruvot‐Fol, 1933, but currently both are considered as synonyms of Proctonotidae. On the other hand, Alder and Hancock (1864) erected the genus Madrella in Proctonotidae. Here, we completed a detailed morphological and molecular study of four apparently undescribed species of Madrellidae and Proctonotidae from the Indo‐Pacific. We performed a maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference phylogenetic analyses using two mitochondrial and one nuclear genes to improve the understanding of the families. Prompted by our results, Janolidae is removed from synonymy with Proctonotidae. Within Janolidae, there are two well‐supported clades. One includes species with smooth cerata that are found in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans. The taxa in this clade include the type species of Antiopella and several other species. We resurrect Antiopella as the valid name for this clade. The sister clade to Antiopella includes a variety of taxa with species that have been traditionally included in Janolus Bergh, 1884 and Bonisa Gosliner, 1981. Further systematic revision requires more comprehensive taxon sampling. The new species discovered have clear morphological differences and strong molecular support. They include Madrella amphora Pola and Gosliner sp. nov. , Janolus tricellariodes Pola and Gosliner sp. nov. , Janolus flavoanulatus Pola and Gosliner sp. nov., and Janolus incrustans Pola and Gosliner sp. nov.     

DNA barcoding of Corydalis,the most taxonomically complicated genus of Papaveraceae

The genus Corydalis is recognized as one of the most taxonomically challenging plant taxa. It is mainly distributed in the Himalaya–Hengduan Mountains, a global biodiversity hotspot. To date, no effective solution for species discrimination and taxonomic assignment in Corydalis has been developed. In this study, five nuclear and chloroplast DNA regions, ITS, ITS2, matK, rbcL, and psbA‐trnH, were preliminarily assessed based on their ability to discriminate Corydalis to eliminate inefficient regions, and the three regions showing good performance (ITS, ITS2 and matK) were then evaluated in 131 samples representing 28 species of 11 sections of four subgenera in Corydalis using three analytical methods (NJ, ML, MP tree; K2P‐distance and BLAST). The results showed that the various approaches exhibit different species identification power and that BLAST shows the best performance among the tested approaches. A comparison of different barcodes indicated that among the single barcodes, ITS (65.2%) exhibited the highest identification success rate and that the combination of ITS + matK (69.6%) provided the highest species resolution among all single barcodes and their combinations. Three Pharmacopoeia‐recorded medicinal plants and their materia medica were identified successfully based on the ITS and ITS2 regions. In the phylogenetic analysis, the sections Thalictrifoliae, Sophorocapnos, Racemosae, Aulacostigma, and Corydalis formed well‐supported separate lineages. We thus hypothesize that the five sections should be classified as an independent subgenus and that the genus should be divided into three subgenera. In this study, DNA barcoding provided relatively high species discrimination power, indicating that it can be used for species discrimination in this taxonomically complicated genus and as a potential tool for the authentication of materia medica belonging to Corydalis.     

Species concept and nomenclatural changes within the genera Elliptochloris and Pseudochlorella (Trebouxiophyceae) based on an integrative approach

The genera Elliptochloris and Pseudochlorella were erected for Chlorella‐like green algae producing two types of autospores and cell packages, respectively. Both genera are widely distributed in different soil habitats, either as free living or as photobionts of lichens. The species of these genera are often difficult to identify because of the high phenotypic plasticity and occasional lack of characteristic features. The taxonomic and nomenclatural status of these species, therefore, remains unclear. In this study, 34 strains were investigated using an integrative approach. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that the isolates belong to two independent lineages of the Trebouxiophyceae (Elliptochloris and Prasiola clades) and confirmed that the genera are not closely related. The comparison of morphology, molecular phylogeny, and analyses of secondary structures of SSU and ITS rDNA sequences revealed that all of the strains belong to three genera: Elliptochloris, Pseudochlorella, and Edaphochlorella. As a consequence of the taxonomic revisions, we propose two new combinations (Elliptochloris antarctica and Pseudochlorella signiensis) and validate Elliptochloris reniformis, which is invalidly described according to the International Code for Nomenclature (ICN), by designating a holotype. To reflect the high phenotypic plasticity of P. signiensis, two new varieties were described: P. signiensis var. magna and P. signiensis var. communis. Chlorella mirabilis was not closely related to any of these genera and was, therefore, transferred to the new genus Edaphochlorella. All of the taxonomic changes were highly supported by all phylogenetic analyses and were confirmed by the ITS‐2 Barcodes using the ITS‐2/CBC approach.     

A molecular evaluation of the Liagoraceae sensu lato (Nemaliales,Rhodophyta) in Bermuda including Liagora nesophila sp. nov. and Yamadaella grassyi sp. nov.

We have undertaken a comprehensive, molecular‐assisted alpha‐taxonomic examination of the rhodophyte family Liagoraceae sensu lato, a group that has not previously been targeted for molecular studies in the western Atlantic. Sequence data from three molecular markers indicate that in Bermuda alone there are 10 species in nine different genera. These include the addition of three genera to the flora — Hommersandiophycus, Trichogloeopsis, and Yamadaella. Liagora pectinata, a species with a type locality in Bermuda, is phylogenetically allied with Indo‐Pacific species of Hommersandiophycus, and the species historically reported as L. ceranoides for the islands is morphologically and genetically distinct from that taxon, and is herein described as L. nesophila sp. nov. Molecular sequence data have also uncovered the Indo‐Pacific L. mannarensis in Bermuda, a long‐distance new western Atlantic record. DNA sequences of Trichogloeopsis pedicellata from the type locality (Bahamas) match with local specimens demonstrating its presence in Bermuda. We described Yamadaella grassyi sp. nov. from Bermuda, a species phylogenetically and morphologically distinct from the generitype, Y. caenomyce of the Indo‐Pacific. Our data also indicated a single species each of Ganonema, Gloiocallis, Helminthocladia, Titanophycus, and Trichogloea in the flora.     

Quantitative comparison of taxa and taxon concepts in the diatom genus Fragilariopsis: a case study on using slide scanning,multiexpert image annotation,and image analysis in taxonomy1

Semiautomated methods for microscopic image acquisition, image analysis, and taxonomic identification have repeatedly received attention in diatom analysis. Less well studied is the question whether and how such methods might prove useful for clarifying the delimitation of species that are difficult to separate for human taxonomists. To try to answer this question, three very similar Fragilariopsis species endemic to the Southern Ocean were targeted in this study: F. obliquecostata, F. ritscheri, and F. sublinearis. A set of 501 extended focus depth specimen images were obtained using a standardized, semiautomated microscopic procedure. Twelve diatomists independently identified these specimen images in order to reconcile taxonomic opinions and agree upon a taxonomic gold standard. Using image analyses, we then extracted morphometric features representing taxonomic characters of the target taxa. The discriminating ability of individual morphometric features was tested visually and statistically, and multivariate classification experiments were performed to test the agreement of the quantitatively defined taxa assignments with expert consensus opinion. Beyond an updated differential diagnosis of the studied taxa, our study also shows that automated imaging and image analysis procedures for diatoms are coming close to reaching a broad applicability for routine use.     

Integrative taxonomy of the Rhinolophus macrotis complex (Chiroptera,Rhinolophidae) in Vietnam and nearby regions

The taxonomic status of Rhinolophus macrotis sensu lato (s.l.) in Vietnam and adjacent territories remains problematic. To address this issue, we performed an integrated study of morphological, acoustic, and genetic characters of R. macrotis s.l. specimens and compared these with sympatric species within the philippinensis group (R. marshalli, R. paradoxolophus, and R. rex). Our results reveal that in addition to a cryptic species of R. macrotis previously found in Jiangxi and Jingmen, China, R. macrotis s.l. in continental Asia includes three further species, namely R. cf. siamensis, R. cf. macrotis, and R. cf. macrotis “Phia Oac.” These four taxa are distinguished from genuine R. macrotis in Nepal and R. siamensis in Thailand by their morphological and/or genetic features. Further taxonomic evaluation of the subspecies of R. macrotis s.l. is needed to determine their affinities with recently recognized cryptic species and to possibly describe new taxa. Our results also show that interspecific divergences in mitochondrial DNA sequences (Cytb and COI genes) among taxa within the philippinensis group (particularly between R. cf. siamensis/R. cf. macrotis and R. rex/R. paradoxolophus) are significantly lower than those of other morphological groups in the genus. These phylogenetic patterns might be explained by recent allopatric speciation or ancient introgression events among ancestors of the taxa during the Pleistocene. However, further investigations including genetic analyses of nuclear genes are needed to test the latter hypothesis.     

Comparative phylogeographies of six species of hinged terrapins (Pelusios spp.) reveal discordant patterns and unexpected differentiation in the P. castaneus/P. chapini complex and P. rhodesianus

Using up to 2117 bp of mitochondrial DNA and up to 2012 bp of nuclear DNA, we analysed phylogeographic differentiation of six widely distributed species of African hinged terrapins (Pelusios spp.) representing different habitat types. Two taxa each live in savannahs or in forests and mesic savannahs, respectively, and the remaining two species occur in intermediate habitats. The species living in forests and mesic savannahs do not enter dry savannahs, whereas the savannah species may occur in dry and wet savannahs and even in semi‐arid steppe regions. We found no obvious correlation between habitat type and phylogeographic pattern: one savannah species (P. rhodesianus) shows phylogeographic structure, i.e. pronounced genetic differences among geographically distinct populations, and the other (P. nanus) not. One species inhabiting forests and mesic savannahs (P. carinatus) has phylogeographic structure, the other (P. gabonensis) not. The same pattern is true for the two ecologically intermediate species, with phylogeographic structure present in P. castaneus and absent in P. chapini. Nuclear evidence suggests that the latter two taxa with abutting and partially overlapping ranges are distinct, while mtDNA is only weakly differentiated. Pelusios castaneus shows pronounced phylogeographic structure, which could reflect Pleistocene range interruptions correlated with the fluctuating forest cover in West and Central Africa. Our results do not support the recognition of an extinct subspecies of P. castaneus for the Seychelles. Pelusios carinatus contains two well supported clades, which are separated by the Congo River. This species is closely related to P. rhodesianus, a taxon consisting of two deeply divergent mitochondrial clades. One of these clades is paraphyletic with respect to P. carinatus, but the two clades of P. rhodesianus are not differentiated in the studied nuclear markers and, again, paraphyletic with respect to P. carinatus. Using mtDNA sequences from the type material of P. rhodesianus, we were able to allocate this name to one of the two clades. However, owing to the confusing relationships of P. rhodesianus and P. carinatus, we refrain from taxonomic decisions.     

Biodiversity of Convolvulaceous species that contain ergot alkaloids,indole diterpene alkaloids,and swainsonine

Convolvulaceous species have been reported to contain several bioactive principles thought to be toxic to livestock including the calystegines, swainsonine, ergot alkaloids, and indole diterpene alkaloids. Swainsonine, ergot alkaloids, and indole diterpene alkaloids are produced by seed transmitted fungal symbionts associated with their respective plant host, while the calystegines are produced by the plant. To date, Ipomoea asarifolia and Ipomoea muelleri represent the only Ipomoea species and members of the Convolvulaceae known to contain indole diterpene alkaloids, however several other Convolvulaceous species are reported to contain ergot alkaloids. To further explore the biodiversity of species that may contain indole diterpenes, we analyzed several Convolvulaceous species (n = 30) for indole diterpene alkaloids, representing four genera, Argyreia, Ipomoea, Stictocardia, and Turbina, that had been previously reported to contain ergot alkaloids. These species were also verified to contain ergot alkaloids and subsequently analyzed for swainsonine. Ergot alkaloids were detected in 18 species representing all four genera screened, indole diterpenes were detected in two Argyreia species and eight Ipomoea species of the 18 that contained ergot alkaloids, and swainsonine was detected in two Ipomoea species. The data suggest a strong association exists between the relationship of the Periglandula species associated with each host and the occurrence of the ergot alkaloids and/or the indole diterpenes reported here. Likewise there appears to be an association between the occurrence of the respective bioactive principle and the genetic relatedness of the respective host plant species.     

Evaluation of species boundaries in sympatric and parapatric populations of Mesoamerican toads

Approaches that integrate multiple independent, yet complimentary, lines of evidence have been effectively utilized to identify and evaluate species diversity. Integrative approaches are especially useful in taxa that exhibit cryptic diversity and are highly morphologically conserved, as well as organisms whose distributions may be sympatric or parapatric. The Incilius coccifer complex in Honduras is comprised of three putative taxa: I. coccifer, I. ibarrai and I. porteri. The taxonomy of the I. coccifer complex has been a source of debate among specialists, with some recognizing three species, while others choose to recognize one widespread taxon. To assess species boundaries and evaluate the taxonomic structure for the I. coccifer complex, we utilized a combination of comprehensive field sampling, molecular phylogenetics and macroecological modelling. Using 58 samples representing all three putative taxa, we generated sequence data from the mitochondrial loci 16S and COI in order to assess genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships, and tested putative species boundaries using General Mixed Yule‐Coalescent models. To evaluate macroecological differences in the distribution of putative taxa, we utilized maximum entropy modelling and identified areas of suitable and non‐suitable habitat, as well as identifying potential areas of overlap between species habitats. We recovered three clades that broadly correspond to the three named taxa that, while being monophyletic, are separated by relatively small genetic distances. Species distribution models revealed that I. coccifer is macroecologically different than the other two taxa, but that I. ibarrai and I. porteri are highly similar. We uncovered cases of sympatry between pairs of species in at least three localities in Honduras, suggesting the potential for hybridization in these closely related lineages.     

Toward an inordinate fondness for stars,beetles and Lobophora? Species diversity of the genus Lobophora (Dictyotales,Phaeophyceae) in New Caledonia

Until the recent use of molecular markers, species diversity of Lobophora, an ecologically important brown algal genus with a worldwide distribution in temperate and tropical seas, has been critically underestimated. Using a DNA‐based taxonomic approach, we re‐examined diversity of the genus from New Caledonia in the Southwest Pacific Ocean. First, species were delineated using general mixed Yule coalescent‐based and barcoding gap approaches applied to a mitochondrial cox3 data set. Results were subsequently confirmed using chloroplast psbA and rbcL data sets. Species delimitation analyses agreed well across markers and delimitation algorithms, with the barcoding gap approach being slightly more conservative. Analyses of the cox3 data set resulted in 31–39 molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTUs), four of which are previously described species (L. asiatica, L. crassa, L. nigrescens s.l., L. pachyventera). Of the remaining MOTUs for which we obtained a representative number of sequences and results are corroborated across analyses and genes, we described 10 species de novo: L. abaculusa, L. abscondita, L. densa, L. dimorpha, L. gibbera, L. hederacea, L. monticola, L. petila, L. rosacea, and L. undulata. Our study presents an excellent case of how a traditional morphology‐based taxonomy fails to provide accurate estimates of algal diversity. Furthermore, the level of Lobophora diversity unveiled from a single locality in the Pacific Ocean raises important questions with respect to the global diversity of the genus, the distributions and range sizes of the individual species, as well as the mechanisms facilitating coexistence.     

Re‐evaluation of the taxonomic status of Hackelochloa (Poaceae) based on anatomical and phenetic analyses

Hackelochloa is a pantropical genus of plant in the Poaceae, in which only two species have been included, H. granularis and H. porifera. Despite several morphological differences, notably the more prominent sculpturing of the lower glume and the larger dimensions of several quantitative traits, H. porifera has been reduced to the synonymy of H. granularis. Moreover, the status of the genus itself has been questioned, with a regional revision of the genus proposing inclusion of its members in the genus Mnesithea. In the present study, we investigated a range of morphological and anatomical attributes to assess critically the generic delimitation between Hackelochloa and Mnesithea. In clustering analysis, H. granularis, H. porifera and Mnesithea species were clearly resolved as three distinct groups with an R‐value of 0.98114. Likewise, three clusters representing these taxonomic units were revealed using principal component analysis (PCA), with the first two principal components highlighting key qualitative and quantitative characters. Scanning electron microscopy was used to reveal different patterns of sculpturing on the lower glumes in the two putative species and the ecological significance of these differences is inferred. The outline of leaf transverse sections, presence of parenchymatous tissue in the midrib region, number of adjacent bundles and number of chlorenchyma layers in the culm were also found to be diagnostic anatomical characters. This study supports the recognition of H. porifera as distinct from H. granularis and provides evidence that the genus Hackelochloa should be maintained.     

Share the wealth: Trees with greater ectomycorrhizal species overlap share more carbon

The mutualistic symbiosis between forest trees and ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF) is among the most ubiquitous and successful interactions in terrestrial ecosystems. Specific species of EMF are known to colonize specific tree species, benefitting from their carbon source, and in turn, improving their access to soil water and nutrients. EMF also form extensive mycelial networks that can link multiple root‐tips of different trees. Yet the number of tree species connected by such mycelial networks, and the traffic of material across them, are just now under study. Recently we reported substantial belowground carbon transfer between Picea, Pinus, Larix and Fagus trees in a mature forest. Here, we analyze the EMF community of these same individual trees and identify the most likely taxa responsible for the observed carbon transfer. Among the nearly 1,200 EMF root‐tips examined, 50%–70% belong to operational taxonomic units (OTUs) that were associated with three or four tree host species, and 90% of all OTUs were associated with at least two tree species. Sporocarp ¹³C signals indicated that carbon originating from labelled Picea trees was transferred among trees through EMF networks. Interestingly, phylogenetically more closely related tree species exhibited more similar EMF communities and exchanged more carbon. Our results show that belowground carbon transfer is well orchestrated by the evolution of EMFs and tree symbiosis.     

Taking insight into the gut microbiota of three spider species: No characteristic symbiont was found corresponding to the special feeding style of spiders

Microorganisms in insect guts have been recognized as having a great impact on their hosts' nutrition, health, and behavior. Spiders are important natural enemies of pests, and the composition of the gut microbiota of spiders remains unclear. Will the bacterial taxa in spiders be same as the bacterial taxa in insects, and what are the potential functions of the gut bacteria in spiders? To gain insight into the composition of the gut bacteria in spiders and their potential function, we collected three spider species, Pardosa laura, Pardosa astrigera, and Nurscia albofasciata, in the field, and high‐throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA V3 and V4 regions was used to investigate the diversity of gut microbiota across the three spider species. A total of 23 phyla and 150 families were identified in these three spider species. The dominant bacterial phylum across all samples was Proteobacteria. Burkholderia, Ralstonia, Ochrobactrum, Providencia, Acinetobacter, Proteus, and Rhodoplanes were the dominant genera in the guts of the three spider species. The relative abundances of Wolbachia and Rickettsiella detected in N. albofasciata were significantly higher than those in the other two spider species. The relative abundance of Thermus, Amycolatopsis, Lactococcus, Acinetobacter Microbacterium, and Koribacter detected in spider gut was different among the three spider species. Biomolecular interaction networks indicated that the microbiota in the guts had complex interactions. The results of this study also suggested that at the genus level, some of the gut bacteria taxa in the three spider species were the same as the bacteria in insect guts.     

Deep‐sea anglerfishes (Lophiiformes: Ceratioidei) from the western North Atlantic: Testing the efficacy of DNA barcodes

The taxonomy of ceratioid fishes is challenging and frequently based on a small number of female specimens described for each species. Twenty ceratioid specimens caught on Flemish Cap and Grand Bank (western North Atlantic), representing 12 species and six families: Ceratias holboelli and Cryptopsaras couesii (Ceratiidae); Himantolophus albinares (Himantolophidae); Melanocetus johnsonii (Melanocetidae); Lophodolos acanthognathus, Oneirodes eschrichtii, Dolopichthys karsteni, and Leptacanthichthys gracilispinis (Oneirodidae); Caulophryne polynema (Caulophrynidae); and Haplophryne mollis, Linophryne brevibarbata, and L. bicornis (Linophrynidae) were identified by examination of morphological characters. DNA barcode sequences, from the 5′ end of the COI mitochondrial gene, were developed for 18 specimens and compared with all ceratioid barcode sequences available in public repositories. The analyses extended the ranges of some quantitative traits for certain species, highlighted the possible existence of cryptic species in C. couesii with distinct ranges in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and indicated a close relationship between Bertella and Dolopichthys meriting further attention. The authoritative identification of the 18 voucher specimens made possible detection of erroneous identifications of some sequences extracted from the repositories and highlighting of taxonomic conflicts that should be the subject of future studies.     

Snake evolution in Melanesia: origin of the Hydrophiinae (Serpentes,Elapidae), and the evolutionary history of the enigmatic New Guinean elapid Toxicocalamus

The venomous snake subfamily Hydrophiinae includes more than 40 genera and approximately 200 species. Most members of this clade inhabit Australia, and have been well studied. But, because of poor taxon sampling of Melanesian taxa, basal evolutionary relationships have remained poorly resolved. The Melanesian genera Ogmodon, Loveridgelaps, and Salomonelaps have not been included in recent phylogenetic studies, and the New Guinean endemic, Toxicocalamus, has been poorly sampled and sometimes recovered as polyphyletic. We generated a multilocus phylogeny for the subfamily using three mitochondrial and four nuclear loci so as to investigate relationships among the basal hydrophiine genera and to determine the status of Toxicocalamus. We sequenced these loci for eight of the 12 described species within Toxicocalamus, representing the largest molecular data set for this genus. We found that a system of offshore island arcs in Melanesia was the centre of origin for terrestrial species of Hydrophiinae, and we recovered Toxicocalamus as monophyletic. Toxicocalamus demonstrates high genetic and morphological diversity, but some of the molecular diversity is not accompanied by diagnostic morphological change. We document at least five undescribed species that all key morphologically to Toxicocalamus loriae (Boulenger, 1898), rendering this species polyphyletic. Continued work on Toxicocalamus is needed to document the diversity of this genus, and is likely to result in the discovery of additional species. Our increased taxon sampling allowed us to better understand the evolution and biogeography of Hydrophiinae; however, several unsampled lineages remain, the later study of which may be used to test our biogeographic hypothesis.     

Microsympatry in cryptic lowland salamanders (Caudata: Plethodontidae: Bolitoglossa subgenus Nanotriton) from north‐western Honduras: implications for taxonomy and regional biogeography

The taxonomy of the diminutive bolitoglossine salamanders of the subgenus Nanotriton has previously been a source of confusion among specialists. At various times, at least three different species of Nanotriton have been reported to occur in Honduras: Bolitoglossa nympha, B. occidentalis and B. rufescens. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S and cyt b from samples from three localities in Honduras (departments of Yoro, Copán and Cortés) confirms that most populations are assignable to B. nympha. Nine samples collected from a single locality on the northern slope of the Sierra de Omoa, between 120 and 190 m in elevation, were found to represent two distinct taxa: B. nympha and B. rufescens. Field examination of these nine specimens found them to be morphologically indistinguishable, including a lack of maxillary teeth in all specimens. As such, in situ identification of the two species in north‐western Honduras is problematic given the occurrence of the two taxa in microsympatry in at least one locality. The discovery of yet another divergent lineage of B. rufescens highlights the need for a taxonomic reassessment within this species complex.     

How to contend with paraphyly in the taxonomy of the delphinine cetaceans?

Molecular phylogenetic analyses conducted over the past 15 yr have consistently had difficulties resolving relationships among the cetacean species in the subfamily Delphininae. In addition, paraphyly of the genera Tursiops and Stenella in these molecular phylogenies has been a recurrent problem since the first appearance of such a phylogeny in 1999, suggesting that these genera do not accurately reflect the evolutionary relationships of the species they contain. Morphological analyses have not resolved the issues. The genera in Delphininae originated in the 19th Century on questionable morphological grounds. The species were nearly all originally described in the genus Delphinus of Linnaeus. Recent molecular phylogenies based on various mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers have suggested a wide range of possible relationships among these taxa, and several authors have suggested synonymizing all the taxa (Lagenodelphis, Stenella, Sousa, and Tursiops) under Delphinus. Until molecular and/or morphological analyses adequately sort out relationships in this very recently radiated group, one possible solution indeed would be to merge all the delphinine genera with Delphinus. Implications of such a move and alternatives are discussed.

Editor's Note: Papers from past Norris Award winners have primarily been a revised or reduced version of the actual presentation given as a plenary talk at the biennial conference. Dr. Perrin requested being allowed to take a topic from his presentation and expand on it to present a set of ideas in the form of an essay that could pass the rigors of the peer‐review process. As a result, this Norris Award paper has undergone peer‐review and has taken longer than usual for a Norris Award paper to appear in the journal following its presentation at the biennial conference. It also has co‐authors, with varying opinions on the issues discussed in the essay, to cover appropriately and more thoroughly those components of the paper that required additional expertise. I believe this approach has produced an excellent, thought‐provoking essay and is an approach that should be available to future Norris Award winners if they so choose to take it. Since this essay is meant to elicit dialogue, comments are welcome and will be considered for publication in Letters to the Editor.