Radial patterns of xylem sap flow in non-, diffuse- and ring-porous tree species

We investigated radial patterns of sap flux density and wood properties in the sapwood of young loblolly pine (Finns taeda L.), mature white oak (Quercus alba L.) and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.), which represent three major classes of wood anatomy: non-porous (coniferous), ring-porous and diffuse-porous. Radial measurements of xylem sap flux density were made in sections of xylem extending to 20 mm and 20–40 mm from the cambium. These measurements were compared with measurements of the relative water content (R_s) and sapwood specific gravity (ρ_r) of corresponding radial sections. In both hardwood species, sap flow differences were rarely significant between the two depth intervals. In pine, a 59% reduction in daily sap flux density from outer to inner sapwood was found. This could not be accounted for by a 3% drop in R_s; rather, an accompanying 9% reduction in ρ_r indicated a transition between the depth intervals from mature to juvenile sapwood, and is the probable cause of the lower flux rate in the inner xylem of pine.     

Fine root responses to temporal nutrient heterogeneity and competition in seedlings of two tree species with different rooting strategies

There is little direct evidence for effects of soil heterogeneity and root plasticity on the competitive interactions among plants. In this study, we experimentally examined the impacts of temporal nutrient heterogeneity on root growth and interactions between two plant species with very different rooting strategies: Liquidambar styraciflua (sweet gum), which shows high root plasticity in response to soil nutrient heterogeneity, and Pinus taeda (loblolly pine), a species with less plastic roots. Seedlings of the two species were grown in sandboxes in inter‐ and intraspecific combinations. Nutrients were applied in a patch either in a stable (slow‐release) or in a variable (pulse) manner. Plant aboveground biomass, fine root mass, root allocation between nutrient patch and outside the patch, and root vertical distribution were measured. L. styraciflua grew more aboveground (40% and 27% in stable and variable nutrient treatment, respectively) and fine roots (41% and 8% in stable and variable nutrient treatment, respectively) when competing with P. taeda than when competing with a conspecific individual, but the growth of P. taeda was not changed by competition from L. styraciflua. Temporal variation in patch nutrient level had little effect on the species’ competitive interactions. The more flexible L. styraciflua changed its vertical distribution of fine roots in response to competition from P. taeda, growing more roots in deeper soil layers compared to its roots in conspecific competition, leading to niche differentiation between the species, while the fine root distribution of P. taeda remained unchanged across all treatments. Synthesis. L. styraciflua showed greater flexibility in root growth by changing its root vertical distribution and occupying space of not occupied by P. taeda. This flexibility gave L. styraciflua an advantage in interspecific competition.     

Water loss regulation to soil drought associated with xylem vulnerability to cavitation in temperate ring-porous and diffuse-porous tree seedlings

Key message

Sustainable stomatal opening despite xylem cavitation occurs in ring-porous species and stomatal closure prior to cavitation in diffuse-porous species during soil drought.

Abstract

To elucidate the relationship between water loss regulation and vulnerability to cavitation associated with xylem structure, stomatal conductance (g _s), defoliation, vulnerability curves, and vessel features were measured on seedlings of ring-porous Zelkova serrata and Melia azedarach, and diffuse-porous Betula platyphylla var. japonica, Cerasus jamasakura and Carpinus tschonoskii. Under prolonged drought conditions, the percentage loss of hydraulic conductivity (PLC) increased and g _s decreased gradually with decreasing predawn (Ψ_pd) or xylem water potential (Ψ_xylem) in Z. serrata. During the gentle increase of PLC in M. azedarach, g _s increased in the early stages of dehydration while leaves were partly shed. A sharp reduction in g _s was observed before the onset of an increase in the PLC for drying plants of the three diffuse-porous species, suggesting cavitation avoidance by stomatal regulation. In the ring-porous species, xylem-specific hydraulic conductivity (K _s) was higher, whereas the vessel multiple fractions, the ratio of the number of grouped vessels to total vessels, was lower than that in the diffuse-porous species, suggesting that many were distributed as solitary vessels. This may explain the gradual increase in the PLC with decreasing Ψ_xylem because isolated vessels provide less opportunity for air seeding. Different water loss regulation to soil drought was identified among the species, with potential mechanisms being sustainable gas exchange at the expense of xylem dysfunction or partial leaf shedding, and the avoidance of xylem cavitation by strict stomatal regulation. These were linked to vulnerability to cavitation that appears to be governed by xylem structural properties.     

Effects of elevated carbon dioxide and nitrogen fertilization on nitrate reductase activity in sweetgum and loblolly pine trees in two temperate forests

Nitrogen (N) availability is a major factor limiting plant production in many terrestrial ecosystems and is a key regulator of plant response to elevated CO₂. Plant N status is a function of both soil N availability and plant N uptake and assimilation capacity. As a rate-limiting step in nitrate assimilation, the reduction of nitrate is an important component of plant physiological response to elevated CO₂ and terrestrial carbon sequestration. We examine the effects of elevated CO₂ and N availability on the activity of nitrate reductase, the enzyme catalyzing the reduction of nitrate to nitrite, in two temperate forests—a closed canopy sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) plantation in Tennessee (Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)) and a loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) stand in North Carolina (Duke). Both CO₂ and N enrichment had species specific impacts on nitrate reductase activity (NaR). Elevated CO₂ and N fertilization decreased foliar NaR in P. taeda, but there were no treatment effects on L. styraciflua NaR at ORNL or Duke. NaR in 1-year P. taeda needles was significantly greater than in 0-year old needles across treatments. P. taeda NaR was negatively correlated with bio-available molybdenum concentrations in soils, suggesting that CO₂ and N-mediated changes in soil nutrient status may be altering soil-plant N-dynamics. The variation in response among species may reflect different strategies for acquiring N and suggests that elevated CO₂ may alter plant N dynamics through changes in NaR.     

First-year growth response of trees in an intact forest exposed to elevated CO2

Although elevated atmospheric CO₂ has been shown to increase growth of tree seedlings and saplings, the response of intact forest ecosystems and established trees is unclear. We report results from the first large-scale experimental system designed to study the effects of elevated CO₂ on an intact forest with the full complement of species interactions and environmental stresses. During the first year of exposure to ^ 1.5 Ë ambient CO₂, canopy loblolly pine (Pinus taeda, L.) trees increased basal area growth rate by 24% but understorey trees of loblolly pine, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.), and red maple (Acer rubrum L.) did not respond. Winged elm (Ulmus alata Michx.) had a marginally significant increase in growth rate (P = 0.069). These data suggest that this ecosystem has the capacity to respond immediately to a step increase in atmospheric CO₂; however, as exposure time increases, nutrient limitations may reduce this initial growth stimulation.     

COMPARISON OF DIMENSIONS AND FIBRIL ANGLES OF LOBLOLLY PINE TRACHEIDS FORMED IN WET OR DRY GROWING SEASONS

Diameter and wall thickness of tracheids and the fibrillar angle in their S₂ layers were investigated at five relative heights within two increment sheaths of one dominant loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). The sheaths investigated were formed during extremes of soil moisture availability. In both increment sheaths the radial and longitudinal trends of the respective anatomical features were similar; however, the sheaths differed in the degree and rate at which their size changed from the apex to the base of the tree. Soil moisture conditions directly affected the width of the annual rings, tracheid diameter, and wall thickness but not the fibril angle of tracheid walls.     

Recovery kinetics of photochemical efficiency in winter stressed conifers: the effects of growth light environment,extent of the season and species

Evergreens undergo reductions in maximal photochemical efficiency (F_v/F_m) during winter due to increases in sustained thermal energy dissipation. Upon removing winter stressed leaves to room temperature and low light, F_v/F_m recovers and can include both a rapid and a slow phase. The goal of this study was to determine whether the rapid component to recovery exists in winter stressed conifers at any point during the season in a seasonally extreme environment. Additional goals were to compare the effects of species, growth light environment and the extent of the winter season on recovery kinetics in conifers. Four species (sun and shade needle) were monitored during the winter of 2007/2008: eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), Taxus cuspidata and white spruce (Picea glauca). F_v/F_m was measured in the field, and then monitored indoors at room temperature and low light for 6 days. The results showed that all species showed a rapid component to recovery in early winter that disappeared later in the season in sun needles but was present in shade needles on most days monitored during winter. There were differences among species in the recovery kinetics across the season, with pine recovering the most slowly and spruce the most quickly. The results suggest an important role for the rapidly reversible form of energy dissipation in early winter, as well as important differences between species in their rate of recovery in late winter/early spring which may have implications for spring onset of photosynthesis.     

Hydrologic balance in an intact temperate forest ecosystem under ambient and elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration

Abstract Increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentration decreases stomatal conductance in many species, but the savings of water from reduced transpiration may permit the forest to retain greater leaf area index (L). Therefore, the net effect on water use in forest ecosystems under a higher CO₂ atmosphere is difficult to predict. The free air CO₂ enrichment (FACE) facility (n = 3) in a 14‐m tall (in 1996) Pinus taeda L. stand was designed to reduce uncertainties in predicting such responses. Continuous measurements of precipitation, throughfall precipitation, sap flux, and soil moisture were made over 3.5 years under ambient (CO₂^a) and elevated (CO₂^e) ambient + 200 µmol mol^?1). Annual stand transpiration under ambient CO₂ conditions accounted for 84–96% of latent heat flux measured with the eddy‐covariance technique above the canopy. Under CO₂^e, P. taeda transpired less per unit of leaf area only when soil drought was severe. Liquidambar styraciflua, the other major species in the forest, used progressively less water, settling at 25% reduction in sap flux density after 3.5 years under CO₂^e. Because P. taeda dominated the stand, and severe drought periods were of relatively short duration, the direct impact of CO₂^e on water savings in the stand was undetectable. Moreover, the forest used progressively more water under CO₂^e, probably because soil moisture availability progressively increased, probably owing to a reduction in soil evaporation caused by more litter buildup in the CO₂^e plots. The results suggest that, in this forest, the effect of CO₂^e on transpiration was greater indirectly through enhanced litter production than directly through reduced stomatal conductance. In forests composed of species more similar to L. styraciflua, water savings from stomatal closure may dominate the response to CO₂^e.     

Growth strategies of main trees and forest architecture of aFagus-Magnolia forest in Florida, USA

Growth strategies of six species of trees are compared and used to analyze forest architecture. They included the overstory speciesFagus grandifolia, Magnolia grandiflora, Pinus glabra andLiquidambar styraciflua, and the understory speciesOstrya virginiana andIlex opaca. The six species were abundant in Woodyard Hammock, an old-growth forest in northern Florida, USA. Height, stem diameter, crown projection and radial growth were measured in trees between 5 and 35 m tall. Three different, but non-exclusive, growth strategies were identified for the tree species: survival (Fagus grandifolia, Magnolia grandiflora, Ilex opaca), occupy open space (Fagus grandifolia, Ostrya virginiana, Ilex opaca), and reach above competitors (Liquidambar styraciflua, Pinus glabra). In two transects (0.42 ha) and one quadrat (1 ha), heights of dominant trees were used to distinguish different phases of forest development, which were mapped. In the quadrat, juvenile canopy trees in the undergrowth were mapped. The combination of presence of different developmental phases, presence of juveniles in the undergrowth, growth strategies of main tree species, and disturbance regime was used to assess forest development in the near future.Fagus grandifolia is predicted to become the main dominant species, but the frequent hurricanes open the forest canopy and provide opportunities for understory species (Ostrya virginiana andIlex opaca), and light-demanding overstory species (Liquidambar styraciflua andPinus glabra).     

Seasonal patterns of leaf photosynthetic and secondary xylem vascular traits in current‐year stems of three Sorbus species with contrasting growth habits

Seasonal effects of environmental variables on photosynthetic activity and secondary xylem formation provide data to demonstrate how environmental factors together with leaf ageing during the season control tree growth. In this study, we assessed physiological responses in photosynthetic behaviour to seasonal climate changes, and also identified seasonal differences in vascular traits within differentiating secondary xylem tissue from three diploid species of the taxonomically complex genus Sorbus. From sampling day 150, a clear physiological segregation of S. chamaemespilus from S. torminalis and S. aria was evident. The shrubby species S. chamaemespilus could be distinguished by a higher photosynthetic capacity between days 150 and 206. This was reflected in its associations with net CO₂ assimilation rate (P_N), maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII (F_v/F_m), variable‐to‐initial fluorescence ratio (F_v/F₀), potential electron acceptor capacity (‘area’) in multivariate space, and also its associations with log‐transformed vessel area and log‐transformed relative conductivity between days 239 and 268. The maximum segregation and differentiation among the examined Sorbus species was on sampling day 206. The largest differences between S. torminalis and S. aria were found on day 115, when the latter species clearly showed closer associations with high values of vessel density and transpiration (E). Sampling day clusters were arranged along an arch‐like gradient that reflected the positioning of the entire growing season in multivariate space. This arch‐like pattern was most apparent in the case of S. chamaemespilus, but was also observed in S. torminalis and S. aria.     

Distribution of Vessel Ends in Stems of some Diffuse- and Ring-porous Trees: The Nodal Regions as 'Safety Zones' of the Water Conducting System

We report measurements of the number of vessels ending withinthe nodes in comparison with that in the internodes Such measurementshave been carried out during autumn 1982 and 1983 in 1-year-oldtwigs of three species with diffuse-porous wood (Vitis vintferaL. Populus deitoides Bartr and Olea europaea L) and three ring-poroustrees (Juglans nigra L, Castanea sativa Mill, Sophora JaponicaL) In all three species with diffuse-porous wood, a significantlyhigher percentage of vessels ending in the nodes (at the leafgap) was recorded when compared with that in the internodesNo significant differences were found between nodes and internodesin this respect in ring-porous trees. Since vessel ends arecapable of screening out gaseous emboli and/or particles biggerthan 1 µm in diameter, we interpret the nodes of diffuse-poroustrees as stem zones providing safety for the water conductingsystem .The reason why ring-porous trees are likely not to needsuch ‘safety zones’ is also discussed Vitis vinifera L, grapevine, Populus deltoides Bartr, poplar, Olea europaea L, olive, Juglans nigra L, Eastern black walnut, Castanea sativa Mill, European chestnut, Sophora japonica L, Japanese pagoda tree, vessel ends, nodes, internodes     

Functional groups show distinct differences in nitrogen cycling during early stand development: implications for forest management

Background and aims

Nutrient acquisition of forest stands is controlled by soil resource availability and belowground production, but tree species are rarely compared in this regard. Here, we examine ecological and management implications of nitrogen (N) dynamics during early forest stand development in productive commercial tree species with narrow (Populus deltoides Bartr. and Platanus occidentalis L.) and broad (Liquidambar styraciflua L. and Pinus taeda L.) site requirements while grown with a range of nutrient and water resources.

Methods

We constructed N budgets by measuring N concentration ([N]) and N content (N _C ) of above- and belowground perennial and ephemeral tissues, determined N uptake (N _UP ), and calculated N use efficiency (NUE).

Results

Forest stands regulated [N] within species-specific operating ranges without clear temporal or treatment patterns, thus demonstrating equilibrium between tissue [N] and biomass accumulation. Forest stand N _C and N _UP increased with stand development and paralleled treatment patterns of biomass accumulation, suggesting productivity is tightly linked to N _UP . Inclusion of above- and belowground ephemeral tissue turnover in N _UP calculations demonstrated that maximum N demand for narrow-sites adapted species exceeded 200?kg?N ha^?1?year^?1 while demand for broad-site adapted species was below this level. NUE was species dependent but not consistently influenced by N availability, suggesting relationships between NUE and resource availability were species dependent.

Conclusions

Based on early stand development, species with broad site adaptability are favored for woody cropping systems because they maintain high above- and belowground productivity with minimal fertilization requirements due to higher NUE than narrow site adapted species.     

The Relationship between Endogenous Hormone Levels in the Plant and Seasonal Aspects of Cambial Activity

The auxin levels at different heights in a ring-porous (Ulmusglabra) and a diffuse-porous (Populus trichocarpa) tree werefollowed in spring. There was shown to be a correlation betweenthe pattern of spread of cambial activity and auxin gradients.The observed continuation of cambial activity after cessationof extension growth in ring-porous species is apparently dueto the fact that the mature leaves produce auxin, whereas littleauxin is produced by the leaves of diffuse-porous species underthese conditions. The spring/summerwood transition in ring-porousspecies can be related to a fall in auxin level at the timethat shoot extension-growth ceases. There is evidence of phloemproduction after the cessation of xylem production in Ailanthusaltissima and Robinia pseudacacia, but not in Betula pubescentand Acer pseudoplatanus. It is suggested that, in Ailan-thus,phloem production continues because high endogenous gibberellinlevels are present after the auxin level has been reduced byshort-day treatment.     

散孔材与环孔材树种枝干、叶水力学特性的比较研究

为揭示散孔材与环孔材树种树木水分生理特性的差异,选取了常见的3种散孔材落叶树种(毛白杨、法国梧桐和樱花)和3种环孔材落叶树种(刺槐、合欢和白蜡),研究了其枝干与叶水力学性质的差异及其协调性。结果表明:3种环孔材树种枝干横截面积基础上的最大比导水率(Ks-max)大于3种散孔材树种,但其木质部对空穴化的脆弱性(P50branch)高于散孔材树种,6种树木枝干的水分传输能力和抵抗空穴化能力之间存在一种相互制约的权衡关系。3种散孔材与3种环孔材树种的叶最大水力导度(Kl-max)和水力脆弱性(P50leaf)并无显著差异;对于3种散孔材树种,叶的水力脆弱性要高于枝干,但对3种环孔材树种而言,枝干的水力脆弱性要高于叶。6种树木枝干和叶的水力学性质(Kmax、P50)之间并无相关关系。这些结果表明:散孔材与环孔材树种的枝干水力学特性有明显差异,但叶水力学特性无差异;枝干与叶水力学性质之间是相互独立的。     

An isotopic method for testing the influence of leaf litter quality on carbon fluxes during decomposition

During microbial breakdown of leaf litter a fraction of the C lost by the litter is not released to the atmosphere as CO₂ but remains in the soil as microbial byproducts. The amount of this fraction and the factors influencing its size are not yet clearly known. We performed a laboratory experiment to quantify the flow of C from decaying litter into the soil, by means of stable C isotopes, and tested its dependence on litter chemical properties. Three sets of ¹³C-depleted leaf litter (Liquidambar styraciflua L., Cercis canadensis L. and Pinus taeda L.) were incubated in the laboratory in jars containing ¹³C-enriched soil (i.e. formed C4 vegetation). Four jars containing soil only were used as a control. Litter chemical properties were measured using thermogravimetry (Tg) and pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry–combustion interface–isotope ratio mass spectrometry (Py–GC/MS–C–IRMS). The respiration rates and the δ¹³C of the respired CO₂ were measured at regular intervals. After 8 months of incubation, soils incubated with both L. styraciflua and C. canadensis showed a significant change in δ¹³C (δ¹³C_final = −20.2 ± 0.4‰ and −19.5 ± 0.5‰, respectively) with respect to the initial value (δ¹³C_initial = −17.7 ± 0.3‰); the same did not hold for soil incubated with P. taeda (δ¹³C_final:−18.1 ± 0.5‰). The percentages of litter-derived C in soil over the total C loss were not statistically different from one litter species to another. This suggests that there is no dependence of the percentage of C input into the soil (over the total C loss) on litter quality and that the fractional loss of leaf litter C is dependent only on the microbial assimilation efficiency. The percentage of litter-derived C in soil was estimated to be 13 ± 3% of total C loss.     

Trends in seedling growth and carbon‐use efficiency vary among broadleaf tree species along a latitudinal transect in eastern North America

Factors constraining the geographic ranges of broadleaf tree species in eastern North America were examined in common gardens along a ~1500 km latitudinal transect travers in grange boundaries of four target species: trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) and paper birch (Betula papyrifera) to the north vs. eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides) and sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) to the south. In 2006 and 2007, carbon‐use efficiency (CUE), the proportion of assimilated carbon retained in biomass, was estimated for seedlings of the four species as the quotient of relative growth rate (RGR) and photosynthesis per unit tree mass (A_tree). In aspen and birch, CUE and RGR declined significantly with increasing growth temperature, which spanned 9 °C across gardens and years. The 37% (relative) CUE decrease from coolest to warmest garden correlated with increases in leaf nighttime respiration (R_leaf) and the ratio of R_leaf to leaf photosynthesis (R_%A). For cottonwood and sweet gum, however, similar increases in R_leaf and R_%A accompanied modest CUE declines, implying that processes other than R_leaf were responsible for species differences in CUE's temperature response. Our findings illustrate marked taxonomic variation, at least among young trees, in the thermal sensitivity of CUE, and point to potentially negative consequences of climate warming for the carbon balance, competitive ability, and persistence of two foundation species in northern temperate and boreal forests.     

Stand development on reforested bottomlands in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley

Reforestation of bottomland hardwood sites in the southeastern United States has markedly increased in recent years due, in part, to financial incentives provided by conservation programs. Currently >250,000 ha of marginal farmland have been returned to hardwood forests. I observed establishment of trees and shrubs on 205 reforested bottomlands: 133 sites were planted primarily with oak species (Quercus spp.), 60 sites were planted with pulpwood producing species (Populus deltoides, Liquidambar styraciflua, or Platanus occidentalis), and 12 sites were not planted (i.e., passive regeneration). Although oak sites were planted with more species, sites planted with pulpwood species were more rapidly colonized by additional species. The density of naturally colonizing species exceeded that of planted species but density of invaders decreased rapidly with distance from forest edge. Trees were shorter in height on sites planted with oaks than on sites planted with pulpwood species but within a site, planted trees attained greater heights than did colonizing species. Thus, planted trees dominated the canopy of reforested sites as they matured. Planted species acted in concert with natural invasion to influence the current condition of woody vegetation on reforested sites. Cluster analysis of species importance values distinguished three woody vegetation conditions: (1) Populus deltoides stands (2) oak stands with little natural invasion by other tree species, and (3) stands dominated by planted or naturally invading species other than oaks. Increased diversity on reforested sites would likely result from (a) greater diversity of planted species, particularly when sites are far from existing forest edges and (b) thinning of planted trees as they attain closed canopies.     

长白山阔叶树种木质部环孔和散孔结构特征的分化导致其水力学性状的显著差异

木质部的解剖结构特征对树木水分传输功能有重要的影响,阔叶树种木质部环孔和散孔结构特征的分化,很可能导致两个功能类群在水力学结构上存在显著差异,但是有关两个功能类群间细致的水力学性状的对比研究还较少,二者整枝水平的导水率及纹孔水平的细致结构差异尚未见报道.本试验以长白山阔叶红松林常见的3个环孔材和4个散孔材乔木树种为研究对象,对比了两个功能类群树种的整枝导水率(k_shoot)、枝条木质部栓塞脆弱性(p_50)等重要水力学相关生理功能特征,并分析了两个功能类群间的木质部组织水平和纹孔水平上的解剖结构特征差异.结果表明:与茎段导水率差异一致,环孔材树种的整枝导水率也显著高于散孔材,但枝条木质部气穴化抵抗力显著弱于散孔材,二者的差异反映了整枝水平上木质部导水效率和安全性之间的权衡关系,与两个功能类群的水力学生理特征存在显著差异一致,二者在最大导管长度、导管直径、纹孔开口面积、纹孔开口比例等光学和扫描电镜观测解剖结构特征上都存在显著差异;木质部解剖特征(组织水平、纹孔水平)和k_shoot、p_50等生理特征间,以及木质部不同解剖特征之间存在显著的相关,且两个功能类群遵循相同的规律,反映了木质部结构对水分传输功能的重要影响,而导水率和气穴化抵抗力对木质部对立的结构要求,体现了树木水分传输系统构建的生物物理局限性.     

Evaluation of a new centrifuge technique for rapid generation of xylem vulnerability curves

A new technique for generating xylem cavitation and vulnerability curves was evaluated. The centrifugal force was used to lower the negative pressure in a xylem segment and to induce a positive pressure difference between sample's ends. This enabled the determination of sample hydraulic conductance during centrifugation and, hence, its variation with decreasing xylem pressures. The centrifuge technique was compared with standard methods on a large number of species including conifers, diffuse-porous and ring-porous woody angiosperms. A very good agreement was found for coniferous and diffuse-porous species. However, the technique was not appropriate for ring-porous species, probably because many vessels were cut open in the centrifuged xylem segments. The main advantage of this technique is its rapidity, the vulnerability curve of a xylem segment being constructed typically in less than half an hour. This will greatly facilitate the study of xylem cavitation in ecological or genetic researches.     

Direct and indirect effects of elevated CO2 on leaf respiration in a forest ecosystem

We measured the short‐term direct and long‐term indirect effects of elevated CO₂ on leaf dark respiration of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) in an intact forest ecosystem. Trees were exposed to ambient or ambient + 200 µmol mol^?1 atmospheric CO₂ using free‐air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE) technology. After correcting for measurement artefacts, a short‐term 200 µmol mol^?1 increase in CO₂ reduced leaf respiration by 7–14% for sweetgum and had essentially no effect on loblolly pine. This direct suppression of respiration was independent of the CO₂ concentration under which the trees were grown. Growth under elevated CO₂ did not appear to have any long‐term indirect effects on leaf maintenance respiration rates or the response of respiration to changes in temperature (Q₁₀, R₀). Also, we found no relationship between mass‐based respiration rates and leaf total nitrogen concentrations. Leaf construction costs were unaffected by growth CO₂ concentration, although leaf construction respiration decreased at elevated CO₂ in both species for leaves at the top of the canopy. We conclude that elevated CO₂ has little effect on leaf tissue respiration, and that the influence of elevated CO₂ on plant respiratory carbon flux is primarily through increased biomass.