An overview of the South Korean edible insect food industry: challenges and future pricing/promotion strategies

The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the edible insect industry in South Korea and present suggestions for future pricing and promotion strategies. In the first section of this paper, this study outlines the current status and challenges of the edible insect industry in the food market, the material market, the animal feed market, and the medicinal market. The second section of this paper suggests different pricing and promotion strategies for each market segment. This study describes how the consideration of personal traits, information framing, and increasing familiarity can enhance consumer consumption of insect‐based foods.     

The impact of consumer familiarity on edible insect food product purchase and expected liking: The role of media trust and purchase activism

This study aims to investigate the impact of consumer familiarity with edible insect food products on purchase intentions and expected liking. Based on persuasion and information processing theories, this study examines the roles of media trust and purchase activism as underlying psychological mechanisms. The findings of this study indicate that consumer familiarity contributes to the formation of media trust. It adds credibility to the media information and consumers can be more motivated to exercise their purchase activism as the edible insect food movement is closely related to social causes like sustainability. Activist motivation, then, changes consumers' behavioral outcomes such as purchase intention and expected liking of edible insect food products.     

Consumer preference for edible insect‐containing cookies determined by conjoint analysis: An exploratory study of Korean consumers

Consumers are the principal agents of consumption when edible insect cookies are launched into the market; therefore, there is a need for research into consumer perception of this product and the factors that could affect their choice. Therefore, through this study, we aimed to provide such information for the development and launch of edible insect cookies. We investigated the importance of product features of edible insect cookies and the part‐worth of the feature levels while predicting the market share of edible insect cookies that are currently in development. We constructed 16 main and four hold‐out profiles from six product features and 16 levels of features. Following analysis of data collected from 203 of 250 respondents, product features were found to be important in the descending order of “type”, “price”, “size”, “availability of nutrition facts”, “thickness” and “use of edible insects”. When the market share of an edible insect cookie with the optimal combination of product features was analyzed through choice simulation, it had the second‐highest share in the cookie market, thus suggesting a direction for the development of edible insect cookies.     

Insect-based dog and cat food: A short investigative review on market,claims and consumer perception

The interest in use of insects for human food has also resulted in the appearance of insect-based dog and cat food products in the market. Insect-based pet food producers are using several health and sustainability claims for marketing purposes, which are expected to be the main drivers of market growth in the near future.In this paper, we systematically synthesize information about the insect-based pet food market, investigating the type of products commercially available, providing a geographical overview and type of insect species being commonly used in these products. We then try to synthesize information about health and sustainability claims currently being used by insect-based pet food companies in different geographies. Finally, we review information about consumer perception of: (1). these products in general; and (2). claims being used to market these products.The insect-based pet food market is growing rapidly in Europe. Recent regulatory approval in the USA will push this growth in the North American market too. It appears that consumers have connected very well with sustainability, hypoallergenicity and the overall gut health claims. Finally, insect-based pet food producers should: (1). adopt systematic marketing; (2). produce more scientific evidence; and (3). actively communicate and partner with veterinarians to improve the consumer perception of claims used on insect-based pet foods.     

Environmental manipulation for edible insect procurement: a historical perspective

Throughout history humans have manipulated their natural environment for an increased predictability and availability of plant and animal resources. Research on prehistoric diets increasingly includes small game, but edible insects receive minimal attention. Using the anthropological and archaeological literature we show and hypothesize about the existence of such environmental manipulations related to the procurement of edible insects. As examples we use eggs of aquatic Hemiptera in Mexico which are semi-cultivated by water management and by providing egg laying sites; palm weevil larvae in the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, and New Guinea of which the collection is facilitated by manipulating host tree distribution and abundance and which are semi-cultivated by deliberately cutting palm trees at a chosen time at a chosen location; and arboreal, foliage consuming caterpillars in sub-Saharan Africa for which the collection is facilitated by manipulating host tree distribution and abundance, shifting cultivation, fire regimes, host tree preservation, and manually introducing caterpillars to a designated area. These manipulations improve insect exploitation by increasing their predictability and availability, and most likely have an ancient origin.     

Common edible insects and their utilization in China

This paper reviews the common edible insects and their use in China. One-hundred and seventy-eight insect species from 96 genera, 53 families and 11 orders are commonly eaten in China. Preparation of edible insects includes frying, braising, stewing, stewing after frying, boiling and roasting. The insect forms eaten range from eggs to adults; however, in restaurants most are larvae and pupae. More than 50 species have been analyzed for their nutritive elements and nutritional value and these data are reviewed here. Insect health foods sold in the Chinese market are also briefly discussed.     

Metabolomics reveals abundant flavonoids in edible insect Antheraea pernyi

The natural flavonoids in foods of plant origin have been well-characterized due to their beneficial biological properties. However, the information regarding the flavonoid compounds in edible insects remains severely limited. In the present study, we used a metabolomics approach to identify the flavonoid compounds in the Chinese oak silkworm, Antheraea pernyi Guérin-Méneville (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), an traditional edible insect. Our study identified over 200 flavonoid metabolites in the larval midgut of A. pernyi with LC-ESI-MS/MS system. These flavonoid metabolites come from eight subclasses, including flavones (1 0 3), flavonols (34), flavonoids (28), flavanones (20), polyphenols (19), isoflavones (9), anthocyanins (9), and proanthocyanidins (4). The relative content of the flavones is the most abundant, with a value of 36.74% of the total. The top five flavonoid components in A. pernyi are hyperoside, isoquercitroside, tricin 7-O-hexoside, hesperetin 5-O-glucoside and protocatechuic acid, accounting for 51.17% of the total flavonoids. Hyperoside is the most abundant flavonoid compound (18.07% of the total) in A. pernyi. Our findings indicated targeted metabolomics is a useful approach to identify flavonoids in edible insects which contain abundant flavonoids than we already knew.     

Ecological diversity of edible insects and their potential contribution to household food security in Haut‐Katanga Province,Democratic Republic of Congo

Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo) has a wide diversity of edible insects making it one of the most important biodiversity hot spots in Africa. The aim of this study was to give the first insight into the food plant range, seasonal availability of edible insects, community preference and willingness to consume them. The study revealed a list of eleven edible insect species belonging to four families. Twenty‐six plant species were recorded as food plants of nine edible caterpillar species. Seasonal availability of these insects coincided with the rainy season and was strongly linked to relatively high level of consumption. The caterpillars Elaphrodes lactea Gaede, Lobobunaea saturnus Fabricius and Cinabra hyperbius (Westwood) as well as the termites Macrotermes falciger Gerstäcker were the most dominant species of edible insects preferred and consumed among the different communities. Our study demonstrates that entomophagy is a common practice among the ethnic populations with married, tertiary and university‐level individuals recording significantly higher consumption of edible caterpillars. Populations between the ages of 18 and 45 years as well as the Bemba tribe were also more actively involved in entomophagy. Further research would be necessary to exploit edible insect biodiversity and ethno‐entomophagy and initiate actions for food plant conservation in DR Congo.     

Natural gums of plant origin as edible coatings for food industry applications

Natural plant-based gums and their derivatives are widely utilized in food industries, however, their applications as edible coatings to extend fresh fruits and vegetable shelf-life has been explored recently. These natural polymeric polysaccharides have many advantages as compared to synthetic polymers, because they are biodegradable, nontoxic, economical and easily available in the environment. Natural gums can also be semi synthetically modified to produce derivatives, which can easily compete with the synthetic preservatives available on the food market. In this review, the recent developments in the use of natural gums and their derivatives as edible coatings have been explored and discussed.     

Inhibition of platelet aggregation and thrombosis by indole alkaloids isolated from the edible insect Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis (Kolbe)

Protaetia brevitarsis seulensis (Kolbe) has been temporarily registered as a food material by the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety of Korea (MFDS). The current study aimed to discover small antithrombotic molecules from this edible insect. Five indole alkaloids, 5‐hydroxyindolin‐2‐one ( 1 ), (1R,3S)‐1‐methyl‐1,2,3,4‐tetrahydro‐β‐carboline‐3‐carboxylic acid ( 2 ), (1S,3S)‐1‐methyl‐1,2,3,4‐tetrahydro‐β‐carboline‐3‐carboxylic acid ( 3 ), (3S)‐1,2,3,4‐tetrahydro‐β‐carboline‐3‐carboxylic acid ( 4 ) and L‐tryptophan ( 5 ), were isolated from the insect. Among them, compounds 1 and 2 prolonged aPTT and PT and impaired thrombin and FXa generation on HUVEC surface. Moreover, these compounds inhibited platelet aggregation. Antithrombotic effects of compounds 1 and 2 were further confirmed in pre‐clinical models of pulmonary embolism and arterial thrombosis. Collectively, these results demonstrated that compounds 1 and 2 could be effective antithrombotic agents and serve as new scaffolds for the development of antithrombotic drug.     

Current views on insect feed and its future

Population growth and the subsequent increased demand for food, along with the rise in cost of feed, have led insect feed to be considered as an alternative to conventional animal feed. Insect feed is a sustainable and nutritious option; however, it does carry the risk of lower microbiological safety than conventional feed. Although there is some hesitancy from farmers in adapting insect feed due to fear of market rejection of insect‐fed animals, surveys seem to show positive attitudes of people towards insect feed when they informed of the benefits. Traditional methods of harvesting insects is not a sustainable method of production, and therefore further research will be needed to access appropriate methods of mass‐producing insects without putting a strain on the natural ecosystem. This review discusses the benefits and risks of using insect feed, its acceptance, type of animals that can be fed by insects, and future directions of insect feed.     

Development of an immunoassay to detect insect contamination of microalgal products

While the insect fragment count is currently the primary test used for assessing insect contamination of food products, this technique is very problematical for assaying microalgal materials. An account is given of a new immunoassay technique,which is based on an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA) detection of insect myosin and which provides a rapid and convenient means of quantitatively determining the amount of insect contamination in algal product samples with a high degree of replicability. Up to 30 samples can be tested in duplicate in 2.5–3 h. Experiments were carried out with a variety of common contaminant insects of algal products, using various life stages, including Corixidae, Ephydridaeand Chironomidae using both Spirulina (Arthrospira) and Chlorella as typical algal materials. As little as one insect per 50 g sample can readily be detected, with excellent correlation (r² = 0.99) between the number of insects present and the color produced. A matrix analysis to determine the ruggedness of the immunoassay was carried out following the protocols of the AOAC International and established that minor departures in seven variables from the standard assay resulted in no substantial differences. The insect myosin assay offers a quantitative and reliable means for assessing insect contamination of algal materials and should be considered for adoption as a standard method for this type of product. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

农田生态系统植物多样性对害虫种群数量的影响

着重分析植物多样性影响害虫发生为害及种群数量的生态学机制,综合评述了关于这种机制的两种主要假说,即天敌假说和资源集中假说．同时总结了植物多样性增大和减少对害虫控制的有利和不利因素．研究表明农田生态系统中植物多样性的增大在多数情况下能导致某些害虫种群数量的下降,但是目前很难就不同栖境中所有类型的害虫形成一般性的结论     

An overview of insect innate immunity

Due to the exposure of insects to various sources of pathogens during different stages of their life cycle and their vulnerability towards subsequent infections, moreover lack of morality issues, economical breeding and short‐term‐life cycle, insect's immunity has been considered as a high‐potential candidate to study underlying mechanisms of defense responses against all sort of invaders, as well as pandemic diseases. Currently, the world is enduring monumental pressure to meet global food production demands. One viable option would be to mass rear edible insects, such as coleopteran meal worm Tenebrio molitor, which is thought to be a substantial protein source. In addition, using antimicrobial peptides as an alternative for antibiotic source against multidrug‐resistant pathogens, makes insects a valuable option to solve this health issue. As a consequence, sufficient knowledge of insect immunity will lead us to reach advanced diagnostic and treatment technologies. To accomplish these goals, crucial importance of identification and functional characterization of the main signaling pathways, such as Toll and immune deficiency (IMD), prompted us to review the mechanisms of the signaling pathways involved in immune response in well‐known insect models.     

Comparison of microbial diversity of edible flowers and basil grown with organic versus conventional methods

The consumption and use of edible flowers as food is growing; however, no study has been conducted to evaluate their role in the cause of food-borne illness or in food safety. Recent food-borne outbreaks traced to fresh herbs have raised concern about their processing and handling. Basil, one of the most commonly used fresh herbs, has been identified as a source of food-borne illness. Baseline assessments of microflora were performed, and the microbial diversity between growing methods (organic vs. conventional) was compared. DNA sequencing was used to identify the microbial flora present on fresh edible flower and basil samples. The most predominant species identified were Enterobacter hormaechei (10%), Acinetobacter calcoaceticus (10%), Enterobacter ludwigii (10%), Enterobacter asburiae (6%), and Enterobacter cowanii (6%). Pseudomonas aeruginosa (6%), Salmonella enterica (6%), and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (2%) were also isolated. Phylogenetic analysis showed that most species of isolated bacteria belonged to the phyla Gammaproteobacteria (81.2%) and Firmicutes (18.8%). Statistical analysis, diversity index for species richness, and lineage-per-time plots showed that for basil, organically grown samples had a higher microbial diversity than conventionally grown samples. Edible flowers and basil are often grown using organic methods and are commonly consumed raw without any washing or cooking, to preserve aesthetic value, but these practices may pose a potential risk for food-borne illness. The baseline assessment, together with phylogenetic and statistical analyses, indicated possible microbial contamination in edible flowers and basil. The use of statistical estimation of molecular diversity based on the 16S rRNA sequences and lineage-per-time plots with phylogenetic analysis well served as a means for comparing microbial diversity in food samples between the growing methods (organic vs. conventional).     

Mechanical properties and water vapor transmission in some blends of cassava starch edible films

The continuous increase of consumer interest in quality, convenience and food quality has encouraged further research into edible films and coatings from natural polymers, such as polysaccharides. Ecoefficient products are the new generation of biobased products prepared with sustainable materials, that agree with ecological and economic requirements including environmentally acceptable disposal of post-user waste. The numerous potential applications of natural polymers such as polysaccharides stimulated the study with edible films based on cassava starch. Blends of glycerol (GLY) and polyethylene glycol (PEG) as plasticizers, and glutaraldehyde (GLU) as crosslinking agent were prepared in order to determine the mechanical properties and water vapor transmission of those films. A response surface methodology was applied on the results to identify the blend with the best mechanical properties and lowest water vapor transmission. The crosslinking effect of glutaraldehyde in the films can be observed. The plasticizing action of polyethylene glycol was restrained by more than 0.5 g of glutataraldehyde. The use of glycerol was less evident for this property even after 284 h of contact time with water vapor.     

Plant silicon effects on insect feeding dynamics are influenced by plant nitrogen availability

Although there is growing evidence that silicon (Si)‐based plant defenses effectively reduce both the palatability and digestibility of leaves, and thus impact nutrient assimilation by insect herbivores, much less is known about how this is affected by extrinsic and intrinsic factors. For example, do herbivores exhibit compensatory feeding on poor‐quality diets with Si or are Si defenses less effective in agroecosystems where high N availability increases plant quality? To investigate the interactive effects of N and Si on insect feeding, we conducted insect performance and compensatory feeding bioassays using maize, Zea mays L. (Poaceae), and the true armyworm, Pseudeletia unipuncta Haworth (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). In the performance assay, the addition of Si alone resulted in increased larval mortality compared with the controls, likely because early instars with poorly developed mandibles could not feed effectively. However, larvae fed on plants treated with both Si and N survived better than on plants treated with Si only, although pupal mass did not differ between treatments. In our compensatory assay, Si addition reduced maize consumption, but increased both armyworm approximate digestibility and N assimilation efficiency, suggesting that enhanced post‐ingestion feeding physiology, rather than compensatory food intake, could have accounted for the lack of Si effects on pupal weight. Overall, our results demonstrate that, similar to other chemical and mechanical defenses, the effectiveness of plant Si defense is influenced by plant nutrient status and consumer compensatory ability.     

Economics of integrated insect management in stored corn

Insects can cause substantial damage to stored grain. In addition, consumers and therefore food processors are increasingly interested in chemical-free products. Integrated pest management (IPM) may increase farmers' profits while reducing their use of pesticides. This study uses a stochastic dynamic programming framework to model the economics of optimal insect control in corn, Zea mays L., stored on-farm with multiple controls conditional on the biophysical conditions of the grain in the bin. We find that for farmers who have a contract with a food processor, where there are quality premiums, the optimal management strategy depends on monitoring the biophysical conditions of the grain and the time period under consideration. For farmers who deliver to the commodity market, their current practices are optimal.     

昆虫图像分割方法及其应用

昆虫图像自动鉴定是一种快速鉴定昆虫的方法,图像分割则是其中关键步骤。通过搜集和整理国内外近年来针对昆虫图像的分割方法和研究,发现对昆虫图像分割的研究日趋增多。随着计算机图像技术的发展,昆虫图像分割方法吸收了许多图像分割领域中新兴的方法, 诸如采用水平集、边缘流以及结合形状、纹理、色彩等多种要素的智能分割(如JSEG方法)等。虽然大量的图像分割方法被引入到昆虫图像研究中,但是目前分割技术依然是阻碍昆虫图像广泛应用的关键。本文经过总结和分析,发现目前昆虫图像分割研究的往往在各自的测试集上有良好表现, 但是缺乏统一的评价标准, 因此很多方法在昆虫图像中应用难以推广。针对研究中的存在的这些问题,需建立良好的昆虫图像分割评价体系,本文建议通过建立统一的昆虫图像库以及对昆虫图像分割的评价方法深入研究,并且这些工作是当前昆虫图像分割研究亟待完善任务。