Overexpression of cyclin E/CDK2 complexes overcomes FGF-induced cell cycle arrest in the presence of hypophosphorylated Rb proteins

FGF signaling inhibits chondrocyte proliferation and requires the function of the p107 and p130 members of the Rb protein family to execute growth arrest. p107 dephosphorylation plays a critical role in the chondrocyte response to FGF, as overexpression of cyclin D1/CDK4 complexes (the major p107 kinase) in rat chondrosarcoma (RCS) cells overcomes FGF-induced p107 dephosphorylation and growth arrest. In cells overexpressing cyclin D1/CDK4, FGF-induced downregulation of cyclin E/CDK2 activity was absent. To examine the role of cyclin E/CDK2 complexes in mediating FGF-induced growth arrest, this kinase was overexpressed in RCS cells. FGF-induced dephosphorylation of either p107 or p130 was not prevented by overexpressing cyclin E/CDK2 complexes. Unexpectedly, however, FGF-treated cells exhibited sustained proliferation even in the presence of hypophosphorylated p107 and p130. Both pocket proteins were able to form repressive complexes with E2F4 and E2F5 but these repressors were not translocated into the nucleus and therefore were unable to occupy their respective target DNA sites. Overexpressed cyclin E/CDK2 molecules were stably associated with p107 and p130 in FGF-treated cells in the context of E2F repressive complexes. Taken together, our data suggest a novel mechanism by which cyclin E/CDK2 complexes can promote cell cycle progression in the presence of dephosphorylated Rb proteins and provide a novel insight into the key Retinoblastoma/E2F/cyclin E pathway. Our data also highlight the importance of E2F4/p130 complexes for FGF-mediated growth arrest in chondrocytes.     

Overexpression of cyclin E/CDK2 complexes overcomes FGF-induced cell cycle arrest in the presence of hypophosphorylated Rb proteins

FGF signaling inhibits chondrocyte proliferation and requires the function of the p107 and p130 members of the Rb protein family to execute growth arrest. p107 dephosphorylation plays a critical role in the chondrocyte response to FGF, as overexpression of cyclin D1/CDK4 complexes (the major p107 kinase) in rat chondrosarcoma (RCS) cells overcomes FGF-induced p107 dephosphorylation and growth arrest. In cells overexpressing cyclin D1/CDK4, FGF-induced downregulation of cyclin E/CDK2 activity was absent. To examine the role of cyclin E/CDK2 complexes in mediating FGF-induced growth arrest, this kinase was overexpressed in RCS cells. FGF-induced dephosphorylation of either p107 or p130 was not prevented by overexpressing cyclin E/CDK2 complexes. Unexpectedly, however, FGF-treated cells exhibited sustained proliferation even in the presence of hypophosphorylated p107 and p130. Both pocket proteins were able to form repressive complexes with E2F4 and E2F5 but these repressors were not translocated into the nucleus and therefore were unable to occupy their respective target DNA sites. Overexpressed cyclin E/CDK2 molecules were stably associated with p107 and p130 in FGF-treated cells in the context of E2F repressive complexes. Taken together, our data suggest a novel mechanism by which cyclin E/CDK2 complexes can promote cell cycle progression in the presence of dephosphorylated Rb proteins and provide a novel insight into the key Retinoblastoma/E2F/cyclin E pathway. Our data also highlight the importance of E2F4/p130 complexes for FGF-mediated growth arrest in chondrocytes.     

BRD7调控Rb/E2F通路的分子机制研究

BRD7是采用cDNA代表性差异分析法克隆的一个新的Bromodomain基因,过表达BRD7可抑制鼻咽癌细胞的生长和细胞周期进程,同时发现BRD7基因可以调控Rb/E2F通路的活性.该研究旨在进一步探讨BRD7调控Rb/E2F通路的分子机制.通过蛋白质印迹和RT-PCR实验方法发现,BRD7能够降低Rb的磷酸化水平,抑制cyclinD1、cyclinE的蛋白质表达,上调CDK4抑制子P19的mRNA表达,但对CDK4和CDK2的蛋白质表达没有明显影响;通过荧光素酶实验从转录调控水平进一步证实了BRD7能够明显抑制cyclinD1启动子活性;采用反义核酸技术抑制COS7细胞内源性BRD7的表达后,发现cyclinD1、cyclinE、磷酸化Rb的蛋白质表达水平上调,并且可以促进细胞生长.这些结果表明:BRD7参与调控Rb/E2F信号通路中重要靶分子的表达,抑制Rb/E2F通路的活性,从而阻止细胞周期G1-S期进程,抑制鼻咽癌细胞生长.     

Tobacco retinoblastoma-related protein phosphorylated by a distinct cyclin-dependent kinase complex with Cdc2/cyclin D in vitro

The retinoblastoma (Rb) protein was originally identified as a product of a tumour suppressor gene that plays a pivotal role in regulating both the cell cycle and differentiation in mammals. The growth-suppressive activity of Rb is regulated by phosphorylation with cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK), and inactivation of the Rb function is one of the critical steps for transition from the G1 to the S phase. We report here the cloning of a cDNA (NtRb1) from Nicotiana tabacum which encodes a Rb-related protein, and show that this gene is expressed in all the organs examined at the mRNA level. We have demonstrated that NtRb1 interacts with tobacco cyclin D by using yeast two-hybrid and in vitro binding assays. In mammals, cyclin D can assemble with CDK4 and CDK6, but not with Cdc2, to form active complexes. Surprisingly, tobacco cyclin D and Cdc2 proteins can form a complex in insect cells, which is able to phosphorylate tobacco Rb-related protein in vitro. Using immunoprecipitation with the anti-cyclin D anti-body, cyclin D can be found in a complex with Cdc2 in suspension-cultured tobacco BY-2 cells. These results suggest that the cdc2 gene modulates the cell cycle through the phosphorylation of Rb-related protein by forming an active complex with cyclin D in plants.     

Arsenic trioxide inhibits the growth of A498 renal cell carcinoma cells via cell cycle arrest or apoptosis

Previously, we showed that arsenic trioxide potently inhibited the growth of myeloma cells and head and neck cancer cells. Here, we demonstrate that arsenic trioxide inhibited the proliferation of all the renal cell carcinoma cell lines (ACHN, A498, Caki-2, Cos-7, and Renca) except only one cell line (Caki-1) with IC(50) of about 2.5-10 microM. Arsenic trioxide induced a G(1) or a G(2)-M phase arrest in these cells. When we examined the effects of this drug on A498 cells, arsenic trioxide (2.5 microM) decreased the levels of CDK2, CDK6, cyclin D1, cyclin E, and cyclin A proteins. Although p21 protein was not increased by arsenic trioxide, this drug markedly enhanced the binding of p21 with CDK2. In addition, the activities of CDK2- and CDK6-associated kinase were reduced in association with hypophosphorylation of Rb protein. Arsenic trioxide (10 microM) also induced apoptosis in A498 cells. Apoptotic process of A498 cells was associated with the changes of Bcl-(XL), caspase-9, caspase-3, and caspase-7 proteins as well as mitochondria transmembrane potential (Deltapsi(m)) loss. Taken together, these results demonstrate that arsenic trioxide inhibits the growth of renal cell carcinoma cells via cell cycle arrest or apoptosis.     

Linkage of Curcumin-Induced Cell Cycle Arrest and Apoptosis by Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Inhibitor p21/WAF1/CIP1

We have recently shown that curcumin induces apoptosis in prostate cancer cells through Bax translocation to mitochondria and caspase activation, and enhances the therapeutic potential of TRAIL. However, the molecular mechanisms by which it causes growth arrest are not well-understood. We studied the molecular mechanism of curcumin-induced cell cycle arrest in prostate cancer androgen-sensitive LNCaP and androgen-insensitive PC-3 cells. Treatment of both cell lines with curcumin resulted in cell cycle arrest at G1/S phase and that this cell cycle arrest is followed by the induction of apoptosis. Curcumin induced the expression of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors p16/INK4a, p21/WAF1/CIP1 and p27/KIP1, and inhibited the expression of cyclin E and cyclin D1, and hyperphosphorylation of retinoblastoma (Rb) protein. Lactacystin, an inhibitor of 26 proteasome, blocks curcumin-induced down-regulation of cyclin D1 and cyclin E proteins, suggesting their regulation at level of posttranslation. The suppression of cyclin D1 and cyclin E by curcumin may inhibit CDK-mediated phosphorylation of pRb protein. The inhibition of p21/WAF1/CIP1 by siRNA blocks curcumin-induced apoptosis, thus establishing a link between cell cycle and apoptosis. These effects of curcumin result in the proliferation arrest and disruption of cell cycle control leading to apoptosis. Our study suggests that curcumin can be developed as a chemopreventive agent for human prostate cancer.     

Cell cycle arrest induced by the vitamin D(3) analog EB1089 in NCI-H929 myeloma cells is associated with induction of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27

EB1089, a 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) analog, has been known to have potent antiproliferative properties in a variety of malignant cells in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we analyzed the effect of EB1089 on human myeloma cell lines. EB1089 inhibited the proliferation of NCI-H929 cells and RPMI8226 cells in a dose-dependent manner among three myeloma cell lines tested. The antiproliferative effect of EB1089 on myeloma cells was related to the expression level of vitamin D receptor. To investigate the mechanism of the antiproliferative effect of EB1089, cell cycle analysis was attempted in EB1089-sensitive NCI-H929 cells. EB1089 (1 x 10(-8) M) efficiently induced G(1) arrest of the cell cycle. Analysis of G(1) regulatory proteins demonstrated that protein levels of CDK2, CDK4, cyclin D1, and cyclin A were decreased in a time-dependent manner, but not those of CDK6 and cyclin E, by EB1089. In addition, EB1089 (1 x 10(-8) M, 72 h) increased the protein level of the CDKI p27 and markedly enhanced the binding of p27 with CDK2 compared to EB1089-untreated cells. Furthermore, the activity of CDK2-associated cyclin kinase was decreased, which was accompanied by the reduction of cyclin-D1-, cyclin-E-, and cyclin-A-associated kinase activities, resulting in the hypophosphorylation of Rb protein. These results suggest that EB1089 can inhibit the proliferation of human myeloma cells, especially NCI-H929 cells, via a G(1) block in association with the induction of p27 and the reduction of CDK2 activity.     

Dissociation of bone morphogenetic protein-mediated growth arrest and apoptosis of mouse B cells by HPV-16 E6/E7

We have previously found that bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2), a member of the transforming growth factor-beta family, induces cell-cycle arrest in the G1 phase and apoptotic cell death of HS-72 mouse hybridoma cells. In this study, we show that BMP-2 did not alter expression of cyclin D, cyclin E, cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2), CDK4, p27KIP1, p16INK4a, or p15INK4b, but enhanced expression of p21(CIP1/WAF1). Accumulation of p21(CIP1/WAF1) resulted in increased binding of p21(CIP1/WAF1) to CDK4 and concomitantly caused a profound decrease in the in vitro retinoblastoma protein (Rb) kinase activity of CDK4. Furthermore, the ectopic expression of human papilloma virus type-16 E7, an inhibitor of p21(CIP1/WAF1) and Rb, reverted G1 arrest induced by BMP-2. Expression of E6/E7, without increasing the p53 level, blocked inhibition of Rb phosphorylation and G1 arrest, but did not attenuate cell death in BMP-treated HS-72 cells. Taken together, these results suggest that inhibition of Rb phosphorylation by p21(CIP1/WAF1) is responsible for BMP-2-mediated G1 arrest and that BMP-2-induction of apoptosis might be independent of Rb hypophosphorylation.     

Tumor suppressor gene p16/INK4A/CDKN2A‐dependent regulation into and out of the cell cycle in a spontaneous canine model of breast cancer

p16/INK4A/CDKN2A is an important tumor suppressor gene that arrests cell cycle in G1 phase inhibiting binding of CDK4/6 with cyclin D1, leaving the Rb tumor suppressor protein unphosphorylated and E2F bound and inactive. We hypothesized that p16 has a role in exit from cell cycle that becomes defective in cancer cells. Well characterized p16‐defective canine mammary cancer cell lines (CMT28, CMT27, and CMT12), derived stably p16‐transfected CMT cell clones (CMT27A, CMT27H, CMT28A, and CMT28F), and normal canine fibroblasts (NCF), were used to investigate expression of p16 after serum starvation into quiescence followed by re‐feeding to induce cell cycle re‐entry. The parental CMT cell lines used lack p16 expression either at the mRNA or protein expression levels, while p27 and other p16‐associated proteins, including CDK4, CDK6, cyclin D1, and Rb, were expressed. We have successfully demonstrated cell cycle arrest and relatively synchronous cell cycle re‐entry in parental CMT12, CMT28 and NCF cells as well as p16 transfected CMT27A, CMT27H, CMT28A, and CMT28F cells and confirmed this by ³H‐thymidine incorporation and flow cytometric analysis of cell cycle phase distribution. p16‐transfected CMT27A and CMT27H cells exited cell cycle post‐serum‐starvation in contrast to parental CMT27 cells. NCF, CMT27A, and CMT28F cells expressed upregulated levels of p27 and p16 mRNA, post‐serum starvation, as cells exited cell cycle and entered quiescence. Because quiescence and differentiation are associated with increased levels of p27, our data demonstrating that p16 was upregulated along with p27 during quiescence, suggests a potential role for p16 in maintaining these non‐proliferative states. J. Cell. Biochem. 114: 1355–1363, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Adeno-associated virus type 2 increases proteosome-dependent degradation of p21WAF1 in a human papillomavirus type 31b-positive cervical carcinoma line

Adeno-associated virus type 2 (AAV2) seropositivity is negatively correlated with the development of human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated cervical cancer. We have begun analysis of the molecular mechanisms underlying AAV2-mediated onco-suppression through cell cycle regulation in HPV-infected keratinocytes isolated from a low-grade cervical lesion. AAV2 superinfection of HPV type 31b (HPV31b)-positive cells at early times postinfection resulted in degradation of the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor p21(WAF1) protein in a proteosome-dependent manner. Downstream consequences of lowering p21(WAF1) levels included a proportional loss of cyclin E/CDK2 complexes bound to p21(WAF1). The loss of stable p21(WAF1)/cyclin E/CDK2 complexes coincided with an increase in CDK2-associated kinase activity and cyclin E levels. Both events have the potential to enhance the G(1)/S transition point mediated by active cyclin E/CDK2 complexes. Concurrently, cyclin A and E2F levels were decreased, conditions reminiscent of delayed entrance into the S phase of the cell cycle. On the other hand, infection of primary human foreskin keratinocytes with AAV2 resulted in upregulation of p21(WAF1) protein levels, reminiscent of a block in G(1) phase progression. We propose that by down regulating p21(WAF1), AAV2 initiates cell cycle activities leading to enhanced G(1)/S phase-like conditions which may be favorable for AAV2-specific functions and may lead to downstream interference with HPV-associated cervical cancer progression.     

In Vitro Phosphorylation and Acetylation of the Murine Pocket Protein Rb2/p130

The retinoblastoma protein (pRb) and the related proteins Rb2/p130 and 107 represent the “pocket protein” family of cell cycle regulators. A key function of these proteins is the cell cycle dependent modulation of E2F-regulated genes. The biological activity of these proteins is controlled by acetylation and phosphorylation in a cell cycle dependent manner. In this study we attempted to investigate the interdependence of acetylation and phosphorylation of Rb2/p130 in vitro. After having identified the acetyltransferase p300 among several acetyltransferases to be associated with Rb2/p130 during S-phase in NIH3T3 cells in vivo, we used this enzyme and the CDK4 protein kinase for in vitro modification of a variety of full length Rb2/p130 and truncated versions with mutations in the acetylatable lysine residues 1079, 128 and 130. Mutation of these residues results in the complete loss of Rb2/p130 acetylation. Replacement of lysines by arginines strongly inhibits phosphorylation of Rb2/p130 by CDK4; the inhibitory effect of replacement by glutamines is less pronounced. Preacetylation of Rb2/p130 strongly enhances CDK4-catalyzed phosphorylation, whereas deacetylation completely abolishes in vitro phosphorylation. In contrast, phosphorylation completely inhibits acetylation of Rb2/p130 by p300. These results suggest a mutual interdependence of modifications in a way that acetylation primes Rb2/p130 for phosphorylation and only dephosphorylated Rb2/p130 can be subject to acetylation. Human papillomavirus 16-E7 protein, which increases acetylation of Rb2/p130 by p300 strongly reduces phosphorylation of this protein by CDK4. This suggests that the balance between phosphorylation and acetylation of Rb2/p130 is essential for its biological function in cell cycle control.     

PC-SPES Inhibits Cell Proliferation by Modulating p21, Cyclins D,E and B and Multiple Cell Cycle-Related Genes in Prostate Cancer Cells

PC-SPES is an herbal mixture, with evidence of clinical efficacy against prostate cancer (CaP), recently attracting tremendous attention. Using immunoblot and cell cycle specific cDNA array analyses, we investigated effects of PC-SPES on LNCaP, a hormone-dependent prostate cancer cell line. PC-SPES inhibited expression of cyclins D and E, inhibited Rb phosphorylation, switching it to a G1-to-S inhibitory state. Moreover, cDNA array analysis showed that PC-SPES caused up-regulation of p21WAF1/CIP1 and decreased expression of cyclin B, Nedd8, cdc2, skp1, PCNA, MAD2L1, cyclin H, CKS2, E2F, Rbx1, MCM2, MCM5, Mpp2, Cullin-Cul4A, Cks1p9 and McM7, which are involved in cell cycle progression. Taken together, our results provide a mechanistic explanation for antiproliferative and antitumor effects of PC-SPES, suggesting that induction of CDK inhibitors and downregulation of cyclins leads to dephosphorylation of Rb and growth arrest.