Higher mental functions and the systems analysis of behavior under conditions of uncertainty

Superior psychical functions (skills) are usually formed in great subjective uncertainty conditions. Because of that exact knowledge of information mechanisms of behavior activity under uncertainty conditions is very importent. Some difficulties of traditional notions (classic behavior act model developed by P. K. Anokhin, systems quantization of behavior) are discussed. The model of probabilitive training allows to describe various training uncertainty conditions, and it operates as the Anokhin model in a specific case. The system-shaping factor in this model is an adaptive result. Afferent synthesis, aim for action, acceptor of the action result and the programme of actions have the traditional senses. Besides those it is proposed to use a concept of probability decision to alter the program of action, as well as an idea of memory buffer (results of search reactions). The organizational features of the functional system of behavior under great uncertainty conditions should be taken into account while specifying the informational mechanism responsible for systems quantization of behavior. The above mechanism can be used for explain the discreteness of an action in the program alteration process when the same quantum of behavior is implemented. These ideas are profitable for systems analysis of superior psychical functions, based on the reflex formation under environmental uncertainty conditions.     

The Formation Of A Behavioral Act: The Problem Of Intrasystemic Heterochronicity

Among the timely questions facing contemporary physiology, study of the laws of formation of new behavioral acts in learning by human beings and animals is one of the most important. The general theory of functional systems has made a substantial contribution to resolution of this problem [1-6]. According to this theory, human and animal behavior are based on the formation of special physiological integrations, selectively uniting central and peripheral components of the organism to achieve an overall adaptative result. It was found that such functional systems, despite the considerable variability in their component composition, always have an invariable internal operational architectonics [5]. Their functioning always involves the same sequence of key mechanisms: processes of afferent synthesis and the system of the acceptor of the result of an action (ARA), the realization of an "executive act," the accomplishment of an adaptative result, and evaluation of its parameters.     

Holographic construction of integrative cerebration

The theoretical concept concerning informational aspects of systemic cerebration was proved based on the theory of functional systems formulated by P.K. Anokhin. It has been postulated that informational models of discrete informational systemoquantum in the form of holographic images of mentality were constructed. They are constructed for the dynamics of formation of functional systems of cerebral architectonics, which determine behavior and mentality on morphofunctional structures of acceptors of the outcome of action. The leading role of the dominant motivations in building and rapid retrieval of informational systemoquamtums of mentality from the memory was underlined. The role of emotions in subjective informational estimation of system cerebration was analyzed. It has been suggested that the parameters of achievements of subjects’ adaptive results by means of reverse sensory input are left on the action outcome acceptor structures in the form of specific informational holographic images.     

Dynamic decision-making in uncertain environments II. Allais paradox in human behavior

In both animal and human behavioral repertoires, classical expected utility theory is considered a fundamental element of decision making under conditions of uncertainty. This theory has been widely applied to problems of animal behavior and evolutionary game theory, as well as to human economic behavior. The Allais paradox hinges on the expression of avoidance of bankruptcy by humans, or death by starvation in animals. This paradox reveals that human behavioral patterns are often inconsistent with predictions under the classical expected utility theory as formulated by von Neumann and Morgenstern. None of the many attempts to reformulate utility theory has been entirely successful in resolving this paradox with rigorous logic. We present a simple, but novel approach to the theory of decision making, in which utility is dependent on current wealth, and in which losses are more heavily weighted than gains. Our approach resolves the Allais paradox in a manner that is consistent with how humans formulate decisions under uncertainty. Our results indicate that animals, including humans, are in principle risk-averse. Our restructuring of dynamic utility theory presents a basic optimization scheme for sequential or dynamic decisions in both animals and humans.     

A New Approach that Eliminates Handling for Studying Aggression and the "Loser" Effect in Drosophila melanogaster

Aggressive behavior in Drosophila melanogaster is composed of the sequential expression of stereotypical behavioral patterns (for analysis see ¹). This complex behavior is influenced by genetic, hormonal and environmental factors. As in many organisms, previous fighting experience influences the fighting strategy of flies and the outcome of later contests: losing a fight increases the probability of losing later contests, revealing "loser" effects that likely involve learning and memory ^2-4. The learning and memory that accompanies expression of complex social behaviors like aggression, is sensitive to pre-test handling of animals ^5,6. Many experimental procedures are used in different laboratories to study aggression ^7-9, however, no routinely used protocol that excludes handling of flies is currently available. Here, we report a new behavioral apparatus that eliminates handling of flies, using instead their innate negative geotactic responses to move animals into or out of fighting chambers. In this protocol, small circular fight arenas containing a food cup are divided into two equal halves by a removable plastic slider prior to introduction of flies. Flies enter chambers from their home isolation vials via sliding chamber doors and geotaxis. Upon removal of plastic sliders, flies are free to interact. After specified time periods, flies are separated again by sliders for subsequent experimentation. All of this is done easily without handling of individual flies. This apparatus offers a novel approach to study aggression and the associated learning and memory, including the formation of "loser" effects in fly fights. In addition, this new general-purpose behavioral apparatus can be employed to study other social behaviors of flies and should, in general, be of interest for investigating experience-related changes in fundamental behavioral processes.     

Evaluation of the role of the adaptive result in the theory of the functional systems

The fundamental of the theory of the functional systems, i.e., the concept of the useful adaptive result as a universal system-forming factor is considered. It is suggested that the adaptive result is not system-forming in behaviors actualized exclusively due to activity of systems developed earlier. It is argued that positive mutations may serve as the system-forming factor for hereditary determined behavioral forms. In all other cases of goal-directed behavior (except conditioning) the aim of performance as a model of the future result plays the decisive role. Only in conditioning the classical concept of the system-forming role of the adaptive result seems to be undeniable. The refined ideas about the mechanisms of formation of the functional systems may be useful in analysis of a number of animal and human functions (learning, emotional stress, neuroses, etc.).     

Principles of organization of polistinae (Hymenoptera,Vespidae) population

The paper describes some invariant relations of the Polistinae population structure, including resistance to abiotic and biotic factors that occurs against the background of the hierarchy of biological systems and increasing autonomy of their functioning. A decrease in the dependence on the hostile environment is shown to be due to the activity of foundresses and workers adjusting to external rhythms, developing specialized responses to predators and parasites (predictable external noise of biotic nature), and creating new information. The population organization of Polistinae wasps is considered in the framework of Anokhin’s theory of functional systems and systemogenesis. There are specific processes in the population that unite individual colonies and their reproduction; they are accompanied by the formation of an advanced feedback and functional systems. Systemic processes can be simultaneously regarded as “adaptation” (reflecting the organization of environmental elements) and as “adaptiveness” (reflecting the organization of the activity of intra-colony processes and the organization of reproduction). The organization of the colony activity and reproduction in functional systems reflects the future survival rather than the preceding phenomena and events. The behavior of individuals in a colony is determined not only by the effects of abiotic and biotic factors (via transformation of cues into behavioral programs), but also by previous adaptations (stored in the “memory” as images of still absent events). General progress, limited or partial progress, and narrow specialization in the organization of polistine colonies and populations are considered using the examples of morphofunctional, environmental, energy and information criteria. The emphasis on invariant relations makes it possible to more fully describe biological systems in terms of such general categories as isomorphism, homeostasis or self-organization, and also enables us to use more effectively the theory of general functional systems in studying social insects.     

A description of micro- and mainframe-computer programs to summarize frequency,duration and sequences of behavior

Computer programs were developed to hasten the summarization of behavioral data. Behavioral data may be collected by hand (pencil, paper and watch), strip-chart mechanical event recorder, electronic event recorder or by a computer. These behavioral data, in raw form, enter (electronically or manually) a microcomputer (IBM-PC, 128K) or mainframe computer. The microcomputer version summarizes the number of occurrences (frequency), duration and sequence of each behavior. As a microcomputer memory is limited, a program to summarize larger data sets containing more behavior patterns was developed on our mainframe computer (CDC Cyber 730/760). This sequential analysis program can accumulate up to 10 behavioral sequences (9 orders of transition) of up to 50 behaviors in a data set containing up to 10 000 elements. The computer-summary of each treatment may be combined to determine if treatment differences exist. An example data set is provided.     

How evolutionary biology challenges the classical theory of rational choice

A fundamental philosophical question that arises in connection with evolutionary theory is whether the fittest patterns of behavior are always the most rational. Are fitness and rationality fully compatible? When behavioral rationality is characterized formally as in classical decision theory, the question becomes mathematically meaningful and can be explored systematically by investigating whether the optimally fit behavior predicted by evolutionary process models is decision-theoretically coherent. Upon investigation, it appears that in nontrivial evolutionary models the expected behavior is not always in accord with the norms of the standard theory of decision as ordinarily applied. Many classically irrational acts, e.g. betting on the occurrence of one event in the knowledge that the probabilities favor another, can under certain circumstances constitute adaptive behavior. One interesting interpretation of this clash is that the criterion of rationality offered by classical decision theory is simply incorrect (or at least incomplete) as it stands, and that evolutionary theory should be called upon to provide a more generally applicable theory of rationality. Such a program, should it prove feasible, would amount to the logical reduction of the theory of rational choice to evolutionary theory.     

麋鹿行为谱及PAE编码系统

以麋鹿为实例,通过辨识行为的基本单元,区别了“姿势”、“动作”和“环境”,分解了动物行为的层次,然后根据行为的适应和社群机能归类,建立了以“姿势—动作—环境”为轴心的,以生态功能为分类依据的动物行为分类编码系统（PAE编码分类系统）。PAE编码分类系统以集合论为基础,明确了动物行为的三要素：姿势、动作和生态环境之间的关系,避免了笼统地将动物的姿势、动作和行为混为一谈的做法,区分了动物行为的组成要素和结构层次。行为要素编码方法为动物行为学研究提供了一个新的生长点。在继承前人工作的基础上,记录了有关麋鹿的姿势、动作和行为达200多种,还区别了各种行为在雄性、雌性和幼体之间的相对发生频次以及发生季节。     

Neural dynamics of the cognitive map in the hippocampus

The rodent hippocampus has been thought to represent the spatial environment as a cognitive map. In the classical theory, the cognitive map has been explained as a consequence of the fact that different spatial regions are assigned to different cell populations in the framework of rate coding. Recently, the relation between place cell firing and local field oscillation theta in terms of theta phase precession was experimentally discovered and suggested as a temporal coding mechanism leading to memory formation of behavioral sequences accompanied with asymmetric Hebbian plasticity. The cognitive map theory is apparently outside of the sequence memory view. Therefore, theoretical analysis is necessary to consider the biological neural dynamics for the sequence encoding of the memory of behavioral sequences, providing the cognitive map formation. In this article, we summarize the theoretical neural dynamics of the real-time sequence encoding by theta phase precession, called theta phase coding, and review a series of theoretical models with the theta phase coding that we previously reported. With respect to memory encoding functions, instantaneous memory formation of one-time experience was first demonstrated, and then the ability of integration of memories of behavioral sequences into a network of the cognitive map was shown. In terms of memory retrieval functions, theta phase coding enables the hippocampus to represent the spatial location in the current behavioral context even with ambiguous sensory input when multiple sequences were coded. Finally, for utilization, retrieved temporal sequences in the hippocampus can be available for action selection, through the process of reverting theta rhythm-dependent activities to information in the behavioral time scale. This theoretical approach allows us to investigate how the behavioral sequences are encoded, updated, retrieved and used in the hippocampus, as the real-time interaction with the external environment. It may indeed be the bridge to the episodic memory function in human hippocampus.     

Traces of Drosophila memory

Studies using functional cellular imaging of living flies have identified six memory traces that form in the olfactory nervous system after conditioning with odors. These traces occur in distinct nodes of the olfactory nervous system, form and disappear across different windows of time, and are detected in the imaged neurons as increased calcium influx or synaptic release in response to the conditioned odor. Three traces form at or near acquisition and coexist with short-term behavioral memory. One trace forms with a delay after learning and coexists with intermediate-term behavioral memory. Two traces form many hours after acquisition and coexist with long-term behavioral memory. The transient memory traces may support behavior across the time windows of their existence. The experimental approaches for dissecting memory formation in the fly, ranging from the molecular to the systems, make it an ideal system for elucidating the logic by which the nervous system organizes and stores different temporal forms of memory.     

Effect of locomotor approach on feeding kinematics in the green anole (Anolis carolinensis)

Squamates are well-known models for studying to examine locomotor and feeding behaviors in tetrapods, but studies that integrate both behavioral activities remain scarce. Anolis lizards are a classical lineage to study the evolutionary relationships between locomotor behavior and complex structural features of the habitat. Here, we analyzed prey-capture behavior in one representative arboreal predator, Anolis carolinensis, to demonstrate the functional links between locomotor strategies and the kinematics of feeding. A. carolinensis uses two strategies to catch living insects on perches: Head-Up Capture and Jump Capture. In both cases, lizards use lingual prehension to capture the prey and the kinematic patterns of the trophic apparatus are not significantly influenced by the selected strategies. Therefore, to capture one prey type, movements of the trophic structures are highly fixed and A. carolinensis modulates the locomotor pattern to exploit the environment. Predation behavior in A. carolinensis integrates two different behavioral patterns: locomotor plasticity of prey-approach and biomechanical stereotypy of tongue prehension to successfully capture the prey.     

Chemotaxis behavior mediated by single larval olfactory neurons in Drosophila

BACKGROUND: Odorant receptors (ORs) are thought to act in a combinatorial fashion, in which odor identity is encoded by the activation of a subset of ORs and the olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) that express them. The extent to which a single OR contributes to chemotaxis behavior is not known. We investigated this question in Drosophila larvae, which represent a powerful genetic system to analyze the contribution of individual OSNs to odor coding. RESULTS: We identify 25 larval OR genes expressed in 21 OSNs and generate genetic tools that allow us to engineer larvae missing a single OSN or having only a single or a pair of functional OSNs. Ablation of single OSNs disrupts chemotaxis behavior to a small subset of the odors tested. Larvae with only a single functional OSN are able to chemotax robustly, demonstrating that chemotaxis is possible in the absence of the remaining elements of the combinatorial code. We provide behavioral evidence that an OSN not sufficient to support chemotaxis behavior alone can act in a combinatorial fashion to enhance chemotaxis along with a second OSN. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that there is extensive functional redundancy in the olfactory system, such that a given OSN is necessary and sufficient for the perception of only a subset of odors. This study is the first behavioral demonstration that formation of olfactory percepts involves the combinatorial integration of information transmitted by multiple ORs.     

Memory and depressions

A hypothesis of depression development is put forward. It is suggested that depression develops as a result of the disorders of the normal mechanisms of learning and memory. To assess the hypothesis, a functional system of behavioral control with the key role of memory apparatus and its links with other units of the system is proposed. According to the behavioral control system, memory is organized and works as the integration of activity of sensory, motivational and emotional inputs. It was shown that disorders of each of these inputs make specific contribution into the origin and manifestations of depression and corresponding morphological, electrophysiological, trophic, neurochemical, molecular-genetic and other changes.     

Awareness of Memory Deficits in Early Stage Huntington's Disease

Patients with Huntington''s disease (HD) are often described as unaware of their motor symptoms, their behavioral disorders or their cognitive deficits, including memory. Nevertheless, because patients with Parkinson''s disease (PD) remain aware of their memory deficits despite striatal dysfunction, we hypothesize that early stage HD patients in whom degeneration predominates in the striatum can accurately judge their own memory disorders whereas more advanced patients cannot. In order to test our hypothesis, we compared subjective questionnaires of memory deficits (in HD patients and in their proxies) and objective measures of memory dysfunction in patients. Forty-six patients with manifest HD attending the out-patient department of the French National Reference Center for HD and thirty-three proxies were enrolled. We found that HD patients at an early stage of the disease (Stage 1) were more accurate than their proxies at evaluating their own memory deficits, independently from their depression level. The proxies were more influenced by patients'' functional decline rather than by patients'' memory deficits. Patients with moderate disease (Stage 2) misestimated their memory deficits compared to their proxies, whose judgment was nonetheless influenced by the severity of both functional decline and depression. Contrasting subjective memory ratings from the patients and their objective memory performance, we demonstrate that although HD patients are often reported to be unaware of their neurological, cognitive and behavioral symptoms, it is not the case for memory deficits at an early stage. Loss of awareness of memory deficits in HD is associated with the severity of the disease in terms of CAG repeats, functional decline, motor dysfunction and cognitive impairment, including memory deficits and executive dysfunction.     

Immunological parameters of 10- to 14-year-old healthy schoolchildren differing in the activity of the emotional motivational behavior systems

The relationship between typological personality features and immune parameters was studied for the first time in healthy schoolchildren. The behavioral diversity was structured on the basis of Gray’s personality theory to evaluate in each child the activity of neurophysiological systems responsible for behavior regulation. A correlation was found between the number and functional properties of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and the systems of behavioral inhibition and activation separately, which makes it possible to differentiate the roles of these two systems in neuroimmune interactions.     

Predicting decisions in human social interactions using real-time fMRI and pattern classification

Negotiation and trade typically require a mutual interaction while simultaneously resting in uncertainty which decision the partner ultimately will make at the end of the process. Assessing already during the negotiation in which direction one's counterpart tends would provide a tremendous advantage. Recently, neuroimaging techniques combined with multivariate pattern classification of the acquired data have made it possible to discriminate subjective states of mind on the basis of their neuronal activation signature. However, to enable an online-assessment of the participant's mind state both approaches need to be extended to a real-time technique. By combining real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and online pattern classification techniques, we show that it is possible to predict human behavior during social interaction before the interacting partner communicates a specific decision. Average accuracy reached approximately 70% when we predicted online the decisions of volunteers playing the ultimatum game, a well-known paradigm in economic game theory. Our results demonstrate the successful online analysis of complex emotional and cognitive states using real-time fMRI, which will enable a major breakthrough for social fMRI by providing information about mental states of partners already during the mutual interaction. Interestingly, an additional whole brain classification across subjects confirmed the online results: anterior insula, ventral striatum, and lateral orbitofrontal cortex, known to act in emotional self-regulation and reward processing for adjustment of behavior, appeared to be strong determinants of later overt behavior in the ultimatum game. Using whole brain classification we were also able to discriminate between brain processes related to subjective emotional and motivational states and brain processes related to the evaluation of objective financial incentives.     

T-maze Forced Alternation and Left-right Discrimination Tasks for Assessing Working and Reference Memory in Mice

Forced alternation and left-right discrimination tasks using the T-maze have been widely used to assess working and reference memory, respectively, in rodents. In our laboratory, we evaluated the two types of memory in more than 30 strains of genetically engineered mice using the automated version of this apparatus. Here, we present the modified T-maze apparatus operated by a computer with a video-tracking system and our protocols in a movie format. The T-maze apparatus consists of runways partitioned off by sliding doors that can automatically open downward, each with a start box, a T-shaped alley, two boxes with automatic pellet dispensers at one side of the box, and two L-shaped alleys. Each L-shaped alley is connected to the start box so that mice can return to the start box, which excludes the effects of experimenter handling on mouse behavior. This apparatus also has an advantage that in vivo microdialysis, in vivo electrophysiology, and optogenetics techniques can be performed during T-maze performance because the doors are designed to go down into the floor. In this movie article, we describe T-maze tasks using the automated apparatus and the T-maze performance of α-CaMKII+/- mice, which are reported to show working memory deficits in the eight-arm radial maze task. Our data indicated that α-CaMKII+/- mice showed a working memory deficit, but no impairment of reference memory, and are consistent with previous findings using the eight-arm radial maze task, which supports the validity of our protocol. In addition, our data indicate that mutants tended to exhibit reversal learning deficits, suggesting that α-CaMKII deficiency causes reduced behavioral flexibility. Thus, the T-maze test using the modified automatic apparatus is useful for assessing working and reference memory and behavioral flexibility in mice.