Myth‐busting tropical grassy biome restoration

The historical focus in research and policy on forest restoration and temperate ecosystems has created misunderstandings for the restoration of tropical and subtropical old‐growth grassy biomes (TGB). Such misconceptions have detrimental consequences for biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human livelihoods in woodlands, savannas, and grasslands worldwide. Here, we demystify TGB restoration myths to promote a positive agenda to increase the likelihood of success of ambitious landscape‐scale restoration goals of nonforest ecosystems. The 10 TGB restoration myths are: (1) grasslands originate from degraded forests, (2) tree cover is a reliable indicator of habitat quality, (3) planting trees is always good for biodiversity and ecosystem services, (4) grasslands are biodiversity‐poor and provide few ecosystem services, (5) enhancing plant nutrition is needed in restoration, (6) disturbance is detrimental, (7) techniques used to restore temperate grasslands also work for TGB, (8) grasslands represent early stages of forest succession, (9) grassland restoration is only about grasses, and (10) grassland restoration is fast. By demystifying TGB restoration, we hope that policymakers, scientists, and restorationists come to understand and embrace the value of these ecosystems and are motivated to establish policies, standards, indicators, and techniques that enhance the success of TGB restoration. We must abandon misperceptions and misunderstandings of TGB ecology that result in ill‐conceived policies and build an informed and compelling global ecosystem restoration agenda that maintains and improves the well‐being of all inhabitants of grassy biomes.     

不同生态恢复方式下生态系统服务与生物多样性恢复效果的整合分析

全球范围内关键生态系统服务的减少使人类社会面临巨大的威胁,生物多样性是生态系统提供各种产品和服务的基础。生态恢复工程对退化的生态系统服务和生物多样性进行修复,对于缓解人类环境压力具有非常重要的意义。长期的理论和实践工作形成了多种生态恢复措施:(1)单纯基于生态系统自我设计的自然恢复方式,(2)人为设计对环境条件进行干预,反馈影响生态系统的自我设计,(3)人为设计对目标种群和生态系统进行直接干预和重建。这3类恢复方式可以在不同程度上定向的影响生态系统的恢复进程,反映了人类对生态系统的低度、中度和高度介入。哪种恢复方式和介入程度能够实现更好的恢复效果,是生态恢复学中的一个关键问题,但到目前为止,虽广有争议,却无定量的分析和结论。针对这个空白,通过对ISI Web of Knowledge数据库中生态恢复相关文献的整合分析,基于数学统计的方法定量比较在不同条件下低度介入(自然恢复)、中度介入(环境干预)和高度介入(直接干预)3种恢复方式对生态系统服务与生物多样性的恢复效果。论文从4个方面展开研究:(1)低度、中度、高度介入生态恢复方式的划分,(2)比较3大类介入方式对生态系统服务和生物多样性恢复效果的差异,(3)不同气候条件、生态系统类型和恢复时间等背景因素的影响,(4)生物多样性恢复和生态系统服务恢复之间的关系。研究结果揭示了不同生态恢复方式的适用条件,以及对生物多样性和生态系统恢复相互关系的作用,对生态恢复实践中恢复方式的选择有指导作用。对未来的研究也有启示意义,如针对特定生态系统服务或具体研究问题进一步探索低度、中度和高度介入生态恢复方式的作用规律和机制;将地区的社会经济水平、生态系统的受损程度等因素纳入生态恢复方式的考察,以最优化生态恢复成本-效率等。     

Ecological restoration of rich fens in Europe and North America: from trial and error to an evidence‐based approach

Fens represent a large array of ecosystem services, including the highest biodiversity found among wetlands, hydrological services, water purification and carbon sequestration. Land‐use change and drainage has severely damaged or annihilated these services in many parts of North America and Europe; restoration plans are urgently needed at the landscape level. We review the major constraints on the restoration of rich fens and fen water bodies in agricultural areas in Europe and disturbed landscapes in North America: (i) habitat quality problems: drought, eutrophication, acidification, and toxicity, and (ii) recolonization problems: species pools, ecosystem fragmentation and connectivity, genetic variability, and invasive species; and here provide possible solutions. We discuss both positive and negative consequences of restoration measures, and their causes. The restoration of wetland ecosystem functioning and services has, for a long time, been based on a trial‐and‐error approach. By presenting research and practice on the restoration of rich fen ecosystems within agricultural areas, we demonstrate the importance of biogeochemical and ecological knowledge at different spatial scales for the management and restoration of biodiversity, water quality, carbon sequestration and other ecosystem services, especially in a changing climate. We define target processes that enable scientists, nature managers, water managers and policy makers to choose between different measures and to predict restoration prospects for different types of deteriorated fens and their starting conditions.     

Does the implementation of environmental flows improve wetland ecosystem services and biodiversity? A literature review

Environmental flow releases are a tool for wetland restoration, but there has been no systematic evaluation of their success. We systematically assessed 102 published studies from a wide range of wetland ecosystems across the globe to determine whether releasing environmental flows could maintain or promote biodiversity and increase ecosystem services, and which strategies were most effective. We found that environmental flow releases remarkably increased regulating services (sediment regulation and water purification) and supporting services (primary production and habitat maintenance), and maintained biodiversity and provisioning services. Biodiversity responses were positive only in river wetlands, and were negative in coastal, lake, and marsh wetlands; the overall delivery of ecosystem services responded positively in all ecosystem types except artificial wetlands. The effects were positive for ecosystem services under all environmental flow regimes, and seasonal minimum flow releases could maintain biodiversity and improve ecosystem services. We also found that long‐term environmental flow releases (years to decades) maintained biodiversity. Values of a change‐in‐flow parameter (D) ranging from 0 to 10% improved both biodiversity and ecosystem services. In summary, long‐term implementation, a high‐flow regime, and D ranging from 0 to 10% for the environmental flows promoted biodiversity and improved ecosystem services around the world, particularly in river wetlands. Regional‐level conclusions might be applicable to guide the implementation of environmental flow releases, but small sample sizes reduce their reliability. We also found that the effect sizes of environmental flow release projects for biodiversity and ecosystem services were significantly and positively correlated in rivers, but not in other wetlands.     

Contribution of genetics to ecological restoration

Ecological restoration of degraded ecosystems has emerged as a critical tool in the fight to reverse and ameliorate the current loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Approaches derived from different genetic disciplines are extending the theoretical and applied frameworks on which ecological restoration is based. We performed a search of scientific articles and identified 160 articles that employed a genetic approach within a restoration context to shed light on the links between genetics and restoration. These articles were then classified on whether they examined association between genetics and fitness or the application of genetics in demographic studies, and on the way the studies informed restoration practice. Although genetic research in restoration is rapidly growing, we found that studies could make better use of the extensive toolbox developed by applied fields in genetics. Overall, 41% of reviewed studies used genetic information to evaluate or monitor restoration, and 59% provided genetic information to guide prerestoration decision‐making processes. Reviewed studies suggest that restoration practitioners often overlook the importance of including genetic aspects within their restoration goals. Even though there is a genetic basis influencing the provision of ecosystem services, few studies explored this relationship. We provide a view of research gaps, future directions and challenges in the genetics of restoration.     

The potential of paleoecology for functional forest restoration planning: lessons from Late Holocene Italian pollen records

We describe forest landscape transformations during the last two millennia in the Italian peninsula by analyzing local (Rieti basin – Lago Lungo) and regional (RF93-30 Adriatic Sea) sediment cores. We identify a dynamic forest ecosystem through paleoecologic reconstruction and consider potential interventions for effective restoration of the most ancient, least disturbed forest ecosystem. The most degraded ecosystems in consequence of human activities were hygrophilous (wet) and mesic forests. In the Rieti Basin, degraded forest ecosystems on mountain slopes are undergoing some degree of forest succession and have less need of restoration. However, management plans for biodiversity, ecosystem services and resources conservation are needed to achieve more sustainable development. In Rieti, the paleoecological investigation revealed a dramatic decrease of deciduous wet and mesic tree taxa through time due to human landscape transformation. The starting point for restoration of a Mediterranean forest ecosystem that preserves natural biodiversity and associated ecosystem services requires recreating some portion of the floodplain wetland ecological niche. Once floodplain forest ecological niche has been recreated, the original ecosystem composed of Alnus, Fraxinus excelsior, Tilia spp., Carpinus betulus and Acer spp., all species which today are rare, should be planted on the basis of microsite characteristics and tree autoecology.     

Integrating trait‐based empirical and modeling research to improve ecological restoration

A global ecological restoration agenda has led to ambitious programs in environmental policy to mitigate declines in biodiversity and ecosystem services. Current restoration programs can incompletely return desired ecosystem service levels, while resilience of restored ecosystems to future threats is unknown. It is therefore essential to advance understanding and better utilize knowledge from ecological literature in restoration approaches. We identified an incomplete linkage between global change ecology, ecosystem function research, and restoration ecology. This gap impedes a full understanding of the interactive effects of changing environmental factors on the long‐term provision of ecosystem functions and a quantification of trade‐offs and synergies among multiple services. Approaches that account for the effects of multiple changing factors on the composition of plant traits and their direct and indirect impact on the provision of ecosystem functions and services can close this gap. However, studies on this multilayered relationship are currently missing. We therefore propose an integrated restoration agenda complementing trait‐based empirical studies with simulation modeling. We introduce an ongoing case study to demonstrate how this framework could allow systematic assessment of the impacts of interacting environmental factors on long‐term service provisioning. Our proposed agenda will benefit restoration programs by suggesting plant species compositions with specific traits that maximize the supply of multiple ecosystem services in the long term. Once the suggested compositions have been implemented in actual restoration projects, these assemblages should be monitored to assess whether they are resilient as well as to improve model parameterization. Additionally, the integration of empirical and simulation modeling research can improve global outcomes by raising the awareness of which restoration goals can be achieved, due to the quantification of trade‐offs and synergies among ecosystem services under a wide range of environmental conditions.     

General attributes and practice of ecological restoration in Arizona and California,U.S.A., revealed by restoration stakeholder surveys

Ecological restoration has become increasingly important in conservation. Yet, synthesized statistics are scarce with respect to essential characteristics of restoration activities. We surveyed restoration stakeholders in the U.S. states of Arizona and California to evaluate key attributes in restoration activities including ecosystems of focus, goals, size, cost, duration, and the prevalence of recommended restoration practices. We also examined how some of the attributes varied with size of restoration, ecosystem type, and state identity. While enhancing biodiversity and increasing plant cover were common goals in the two states, restoration in California also focused more on wildlife habitat re‐establishment and weed control. Restoration in Arizona was implemented more in arid/semiarid systems, larger in size, shorter in duration, used more passive restoration, spent more on equipment, and was less likely to source plants from native plant nurseries. Labor was the most expensive restoration component regardless of state identity and ecosystem type. Per unit area cost of restoration decreased with increasing size of restoration. Yet, the decline in this cost was more strongly explained by moving from mesic to arid/semiarid ecosystems. Duration of restoration projects increased with size of restoration and in more mesic ecosystems. Overall, restoration in mesic ecosystems, compared to arid/semiarid systems, was smaller in size, higher in cost, and longer in duration. These results confirmed that ecological and socio‐political conditions impact restoration goals and practice, with implications of how research can further support practitioners to achieve restoration success under practical constraints revealed by these results.     

Step back from the forest and step up to the Bonn Challenge: how a broad ecological perspective can promote successful landscape restoration

We currently face both an extinction and a biome crisis embedded in a changing climate. Many biodiverse ecosystems are being lost at far higher rates than they are being protected or ecologically restored. At the same time, natural climate solutions offer opportunities to restore biodiversity while mitigating climate change. The Bonn Challenge is a U.N. programme to restore biodiversity and mitigate climate change through restoration of the world's degraded landscapes. It provides an unprecedented chance for ecological restoration to become a linchpin tool for addressing many environmental issues. Unfortunately, the Forest and Landscape Restoration programme that underpins the Bonn Challenge, as its name suggests, remains focused on trees and forests, despite rising evidence that many non‐forest ecosystems also offer strong restoration potential for biodiversity and climate mitigation. We see a need for restoration to step back to be more inclusive of different ecosystem types and to step up to provide integrated scientific knowledge to inform large‐scale restoration. Stepping back and up will require assessments of where to restore what species, with recognition that in many landscapes multiple habitat types should be restored. In the process, trade‐offs in the delivery of different ecosystem services (e.g. carbon, biodiversity, water, albedo, livestock forage) should be clearly addressed. We recommend that biodiversity safeguards be included in policy and implemented in practice, to avoid undermining the biophysical relationships that provide ecosystem resilience to climate change. For ecological restoration to contribute to international policy goals will require integrated large‐scale science that works across biome boundaries.     

Mid‐term effects on ecosystem services of quarry restoration with Technosols under Mediterranean conditions: 10‐year impacts on soil organic carbon and vegetation development

The use of Technosols for the restoration of limestone quarries overcomes the usual “in situ” scarcity of soil and/or its poor quality. The use of mine spoils, improved with mineral and/or organic amendments, could be an efficient and environmentally friendly option. Properly treated sewage sludge from urban wastewater treatment plants could be a suitable organic amendment and fertilizer (rich in N and P) whenever its pollutant burden is low (heavy metals and/or organic pollutants). Its appropriate use could improve essential soil physical and chemical properties and, therefore, promote key ecosystem services of restored areas, such as biomass production and carbon sequestration, as well as biodiversity and landscape recovery. However, the mid‐term impacts of these restoration practices on soil functioning and their services have rarely been reported in the available literature. In this study we assess the mid‐term effects (10 years) of the use of sewage sludge as a Technosol amendment on soil organic carbon (SOC), nutrient status, and plant development in several restored quarries. Soils restored using sewage sludge showed a threefold increase in SOC compared to the corresponding unamended ones, despite the moderate sludge dosage applied (below 50 tonnes/ha). Plant cover was also higher in amended soils, and recruitment was not affected by sludge amendment at these doses. This study demonstrates that, used at an appropriate rate, sewage sludge is a good alternative for the valorization of mine spoils in quarry restoration, improving some important regulatory ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, without compromising woody plant encroachment.     

Restoration,soil organisms,and soil processes: emerging approaches

Better understanding of the connection between aboveground plant communities and belowground soil organisms and processes has led to an explosion in recent research on the applications of this link to the field of ecological restoration. Research is only beginning to have the capacity to link soil organisms and specific ecosystem functions. Establishing general ecological principles of the role microbial communities have during ecological restoration is also still in its infancy. As such, the literature is at a critical point to generate a Special Feature that brings together novel approaches of linking soil and restoration to promote more regular inclusion and consideration of soil organisms and soil‐based processes in ecological restoration. In this special feature, we bring together nine research articles from different ecosystems that study the relationship between restoration activities, soil microbial communities, and soil properties. From these research articles, we describe two primary themes: (1) research on the impacts of ecosystem‐specific restoration activities on soil organisms and processes and (2) research testing methods of soil manipulation to improve restoration outcomes. We hope to inspire readers and restoration practitioners to consider soil microbes and soil processes in their research, restoration projects, and world views.     

The SER Standards,cultural ecosystems,and the nature‐culture nexus—a reply to Evans and Davis

Evans and Davis claim the SER Standards use a “pure naturalness” model for restoration baselines and exclude most cultural ecosystems from the ecological restoration paradigm. The SER Standards do neither. The SER Standards consider both “natural” ecosystems (that are unequivocally not cultural) and “similar” cultural ecosystems as suitable reference models. Furthermore, Evans and Davis propose assessing whether a cultural ecosystem exhibits “good, bad, or neutral impacts from humans on ecosystems” as the basis for reference models. We argue that such an approach would overlook the indispensability of native ecosystem benchmarks to measure human impacts and provide a springboard for social‐ecological restoration.     

生态恢复中生态系统服务的演变:趋势、过程与评估

经过10余年的发展,生态系统服务已经成为生态恢复研究关注的前沿和热点。生态恢复改变了生态系统格局与过程,对生态系统服务的产生和提供具有重要影响。但是目前对于生态系统服务在生态恢复过程中的演化仍缺少系统性研究。对国内外相关研究的最新成果进行综述,总结了生态系统服务评估中框架的构建和方法的选择(参数转移法、系统模型法和定量指标法),介绍了生态恢复对生态系统服务的促进作用、生态系统服务的演变过程以及不同生态系统服务间的协同与权衡关系,分析了社会经济因素对生态恢复和生态系统服务维持的影响。最后结合我国生态恢复实践,提出未来生态恢复和生态系统服务研究可以从深化作用机制研究、推动服务评估创新、增强研究成果应用3方面深化和拓展。     

A review of the species,community, and ecosystem impacts of road salt salinisation in fresh waters

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Land management implications for ecosystem services in a South African rangeland

In South Africa, restoration and sustainable management of historically overgrazed and degraded rangelands are promoted to increase biodiversity and ecosystem service provision. This study evaluates different land management scenarios in terms of ecosystem services in a South African rangeland, the Baviaanskloof catchment. As measured data were limited, we used simple models to quantify and map the effect of the different combination of agricultural, nature conservation and restoration practices on multiple ecosystem services. The land management scenarios were evaluated against management targets set for individual ecosystem services. Results highlight how the provision of ecosystem services is related to land management as unmanaged, pristine ecosystems provide a different mix of ecosystem services than ecosystems recently restored or managed as grazing lands. Results also indicate that historically overgrazed lands provide no forage, may retain 40% less sediment and have 38% lower biodiversity, while providing 60% more fuel wood and supplying two and half times more water (i.e. retaining less water), than pristine or restored lands. We conclude that a combination of light grazing, low input agriculture, nature conservation and restoration is the best for the sufficient provision of multiple ecosystem services. Applying such mixed management would improve biodiversity, ecotourism and maintain forage production and regulating services on farmers’ land. This management option also fits into and further optimizes local decision-makers’ vision regarding the future management of the area.     

Can current native tree seedling production and infrastructure meet an increasing forest restoration demand in Brazil?

Recent global commitments have placed forest and landscape restoration at the forefront of countries' efforts to recover ecosystem services, conserve biodiversity, and mitigate the effects of climate change. However, it needs to be asked if current native tree seedling supply meets an increase in demand for forest restoration? This study assessed the current configuration, distribution, and production capacity of forest nurseries producing native trees in Brazil. Brazil provides an interesting example of how global agreements aligned with national policies can lead to the proliferation of native seedling nurseries, and the challenges faced to restore species‐rich native forest ecosystems. We found that the nurseries in the Atlantic Forest region can still meet an increase in demand—both in terms of seedling quantity and diversity—because most of their production capacity is not currently used. However, not all Brazilian biomes have sufficient nurseries to meet restoration demands, thus there is a risk of using native species from a few biogeographical regions in a much spatially wider and ecologically diverse area. In addition, lack of seed supply and qualified labor can hamper the growth of the market. Barriers to seed supply may also lead to low levels of genetic variability and floristic representation in the populations and ecosystems to be restored. We conclude that restoration of high‐diversity forest ecosystems requires policies and supportive programs, with emphasis on private nurseries, to guarantee adequate supply of native tree seedlings and provide the necessary incentives to develop the emergent economy of forest restoration.     

On Sustainability, Estuaries, and Ecosystem Restoration: The Art of the Practical

Ecosystem restoration in highly complex, human‐dominated estuaries rests on a strong conceptual foundation of sustainability, ecosystems, and adaptive management of human‐induced environmental impacts. Successful application involves evaluating uncertainty, incorporating place‐based information, and engaging diverse constituencies in the planning process. That means integration of technical knowledge with an understanding of the “cultural milieu” inherent in all estuaries, that is, the intensity of human activity and impacts plus socioeconomic factors relevant to restoration goals. Operational definitions of what constitutes acceptable ecosystem conditions and current baselines are critical yet rest in large measure on cultural values and socioeconomic considerations. Resources for long‐term monitoring and research to assess performance and ecosystem condition are paramount. Unprecedented population growth promises additional stressors on estuarine environments worldwide, making maintenance of present conditions difficult. The art of good, practical ecosystem restoration as a management tool at multiple geographic scales promises to play a crucial role in sustainability goals.     

Are Socioeconomic Benefits of Restoration Adequately Quantified? A Meta‐analysis of Recent Papers (2000–2008) in Restoration Ecology and 12 Other Scientific Journals

Many ecosystems have been transformed, or degraded by human use, and restoration offers an opportunity to recover services and benefits, not to mention intrinsic values. We assessed whether restoration scientists and practitioners use their projects to demonstrate the benefits restoration can provide in their peer‐reviewed publications. We evaluated a sample of the academic literature to determine whether links are made explicit between ecological restoration, society, and public policy related to natural capital. We analyzed 1,582 peer‐reviewed papers dealing with ecological restoration published between 1 January 2000 and 30 September 2008 in 13 leading scientific journals. As selection criterion, we considered papers that contained either “restoration” or “rehabilitation” in their title, abstract, or keywords. Furthermore, as one‐third of the papers were published in Restoration Ecology, we used that journal as a reference for comparison with all the other journals. We readily acknowledge that aquatic ecosystems are under‐represented, and that the largely inaccessible gray literature was ignored. Within these constraints, we found clear evidence that restoration practitioners are failing to signal links between ecological restoration, society, and policy, and are underselling the evidence of benefits of restoration as a worthwhile investment for society. We discuss this assertion and illustrate it with samples of our findings—with regards to (1) the geographical and institutional affiliations of authors; (2) the choice of ecosystems studied, methods employed, monitoring schemes applied, and the spatial scale of studies; and (3) weak links to payments for ecosystem service setups, agriculture, and ramifications for public policy.     

Spontaneous Return of Biodiversity in Restored Subtropical Thicket: Portulacaria afra as an Ecosystem Engineer

An accepted criterion for measuring the success of ecosystem restoration is the return of biodiversity relative to intact reference ecosystems. The emerging global carbon economy has made landscape‐scale restoration of severely degraded Portulacaria afra (spekboom)‐dominated subtropical thicket, by planting multiple rows of spekboom truncheons, a viable land‐use option. Although large amounts of carbon are sequestered when planting a monoculture of spekboom, it is unknown whether this is associated with the return of other thicket biodiversity components. We used available carbon stock data from degraded, restored, and intact stands at one site, and sampled carbon stocks at restored stands at another site in the same plant community. We also sampled plant community composition at both sites. The total carbon stock of the oldest (50 years) post‐restoration stand (250.8 ± 14 t C ha^?1) approximated that of intact stands (245 t C ha^?1) and we observed a general increase in carbon content with restoration age (71.4 ± 24 t C ha^?1 after 35 and 167.9 ± 20 t C ha^?1 after 50 years). A multiple correspondence analysis separated degraded stands from stands under restoration based on ground cover, floristic composition, and total carbon stock. Older post‐restoration and intact stands were clustered according to woody canopy recruit abundance. Our results suggest that spekboom is an ecosystem engineer that promotes spontaneous return of canopy species and other components of thicket biodiversity. The spekboom canopy creates a cooler micro‐climate and a dense litter layer, both likely to favor the recruitment of other canopy species.     

Meta‐Analysis of Lost Ecosystem Attributes in Urban Streams and the Effectiveness of Out‐of‐Channel Management Practices

Urban development is a leading cause of stream impairment that reduces biodiversity and negatively affects ecosystem processes and habitat. Out‐of‐stream restoration practices, such as stormwater ponds, created wetlands, and restored riparian vegetation, are increasingly implemented as management strategies to mitigate impacts. However, uncertainty exists regarding how effectively they improve downstream ecosystems because monitoring is uncommon and results are typically reported on a case‐by‐case basis. We conducted a meta‐analysis of literature and used response ratios to quantify how downstream ecosystems change in response to watershed development and to out‐of‐stream restoration. Biodiversity in unrestored urban streams was 47% less than that in reference streams, and ecological communities, habitat, and rates of nutrient cycling were negatively affected as well. Mean measures of ecosystem attributes in restored streams were significantly greater than, and 156% of, those in unrestored urban streams. Measures of biodiversity in restored streams were 132% of those in unrestored urban streams, and indices of biotic condition, community structure, and nutrient cycling significantly improved. However, ecosystem attributes and biodiversity at restored sites were significantly less than, and only 60% and 45% of, those in reference streams, respectively. Out‐of‐stream management practices improved ecological conditions in urban streams but still failed to restore reference stream conditions. Despite statistically significant improvements, assessing restoration success remains difficult due to few comparisons to reference sites or to clearly defined targets. These findings can inform future monitoring, management, and development strategies and highlight the need for preventative actions in a watershed context.