Direct seeding and outplantings in drylands of Argentinean Patagonia: estimated costs,and prospects for large‐scale restoration and rehabilitation

In large areas of the world that are deeply scarred by desertification and hampered by low capacity for natural regeneration, the scaling up of ecological restoration and rehabilitation can be achieved only if it is low in cost with high return on investment, and shows promise of providing long‐lasting social‐economic as well as ecological benefits. In the Monte Austral region of Patagonia Argentina, concerted efforts are underway to facilitate scaling up of ecological restoration and rehabilitation practices. Here, we evaluate financial costs and preliminary results of direct seeding as compared to outplanting of nursery‐grown seedlings of three native species (Atriplex lampa, Senecio subulatus var. subulatus, and Hyalis argentea var. latisquama) considered to be high‐priority dryland framework species. Comparative success is expressed in terms of plant survival and in monetary terms. The three candidate species showed low survival rates, ranging from 4.3 to 22.3%, after the first summer following direct seeding. In contrast, survival rates for planted seedlings of the same three taxa varied between 84 and 91%, after the first summer following reintroduction. However, cost of direct seeding varied between 1,693 and 1,772 US$ less per hectare, that is, 64% less than the cost of outplanting nursery seedlings. Therefore, in the search for ways to scale up ecological restoration and rehabilitation in drylands, direct seeding should receive more attention. We discuss the social and ecological perspectives and the way forward for direct seeding techniques in Patagonia. We also consider how costs could be reduced and effectiveness improved in large‐scale efforts.     

Role of six European tree species and land‐use legacy for nitrogen and water budgets in forests

Water and nutrient fluxes for single stands of different tree species have been reported in numerous studies, but comparative studies of nutrient and hydrological budgets of common European deciduous tree species are rare. Annual fluxes of water and inorganic nitrogen (N) were established in a 30‐year‐old common garden design with stands of common ash (Fraxinus excelsior), European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.), pedunculate oak (Quercus robur), small‐leaved lime (Tilia cordata Mill.), sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) and Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) replicated at two sites in Denmark, Mattrup and Vallø during 2 years. Mean annual percolation below the root zone (mm yr^?1±SE, n=4) ranked in the following order: maple (351±38)>lime (284±32), oak (271±25), beech (257±30), ash (307±69)? spruce (75±24). There were few significant tree species effects on N fluxes. However, the annual mean N throughfall flux (kg N ha^?1 yr^?1±SE, n=4) for spruce (28±2) was significantly larger than for maple (12±1), beech (11±1) and oak (9±1) stands but not different from that of lime (15±3). Ash had a low mean annual inorganic N throughfall deposition of 9.1 kg ha^?1, but was only present at Mattrup. Annual mean of inorganic N leaching (kg ha^?1 yr^?1±SE, n=4) did not differ significantly between species despite of contrasting tree species mean values; beech (25±9)>oak (16±10), spruce (15±8), lime (14±8)? maple (1.9±1), ash (2.0±1). The two sites had similar throughfall N fluxes, whereas the annual leaching of N was significantly higher at Mattrup than at Vallø. Accordingly, the sites differed in soil properties in relation to rates and dynamics of N cycling. We conclude that tree species affect the N cycle differently but the legacy of land use exerted a dominant control on the N cycle within the short‐term perspective (30 years) of these stands.     

Landscape context affects the success of habitat restoration: large‐scale colonization patterns of saproxylic and fire‐associated species in boreal forests

Aim Restoration of habitats may be used as a conservation tool when ecosystems have lost their natural structure, dynamics or functioning over large areas. Controlled and planned use of fire could be an effective way to restore habitats of many threatened species in boreal forests where fire suppression has been effective. We asked whether the large‐scale landscape context affects the occurrence of rare and threatened species in forest habitats that have been burned to restore their fire‐related structures. Location Boreal forests in southern Finland. Methods We designed a large‐scale field experiment that included nine Pinus sylvestris forests (5–10 ha each) in southern Finland. Sites were located in two regions: (1) in eastern region with shorter management history and (2) in western region where intensive forestry has continued longer. We evaluated whether restoration of dead/burned wood is beneficial for rare and conservation‐dependent species and measured the recovery of pyrophilous and red‐listed insects (beetles and flatbugs) in burned forests, using standardized sampling effort. Altogether, 956 individuals of 29 red‐listed and pyrophilous species were sampled. Results Rare species colonized areas quickly, but there was a clear difference in species richness between the regions. The eastern forests harboured higher species richness after restoration. In these sites, the average species richness was 13.7 species per site, whereas in western forests it was 5.0 species per site. Similar pattern was also observed in subgroups: the corresponding numbers for pyrophilous species were 9.7 vs. 3.8, for red‐listed 8.7 vs. 2.3 and for red‐listed pyrophiles 4.7 vs. 1.2. Main conclusions Introducing fire back to boreal forests can aid in the recovery of rare species, but the landscape context considerably affects the success of restoring species. If restored habitats are located in landscapes that have lost their natural properties long ago, the success of restoration seems to be more challenging than in landscapes where habitats have been modified more recently.     

Presence and absence of non‐native fish species in the Wet Tropics region,Australia

Distributional records of non‐native fish species were identified in the Wet Tropics region, Far North Queensland, Australia, through a compilation of published records and expert knowledge. A total of 1106 records were identified comprising 346 presence and four uncertain records for at least 13 species, and 756 absence records. All current presence records consist of six species from the families Cichlidae and Poeciliidae with established self‐sustaining populations in the region, probably affecting the highly diverse native fish fauna.     

Isolation of haemolytic bacilli from field‐collected Culicoides oxystoma and Culicoides peregrinus: potential vectors of bluetongue virus in West Bengal,India

Two haemolytic bacterial strains of Bacillus pumilus (CU1A, CU1B) and one blood‐utilizing strain of Bacillus licheniformis (CU2B) were isolated from relatively low numbers of field‐collected females of Culicoides oxystoma and Culicoides peregrinus (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). A total of 36 females, including 18 of each of C. oxystoma and C. peregrinus (consisting of one and a pool of eight blood‐engorged specimens, and one and a pool of eight non‐engorged specimens for each species), were tested. In C. oxystoma, all three strains of bacteria were isolated from the one non‐engorged, the pool of non‐engorged and the pool of blood‐engorged females tested, but CU1A and CU2B were not found in the one blood‐engorged female tested. In C. peregrinus, all three strains were present in the pool of blood‐engorged females. However, the strain CU2B was not found in the pool of non‐engorged females. In the one blood‐engorged and one non‐engorged female tested, CU1A and CU2B were detected. The bacterial strains were identified based on Gram staining, enzyme activity (amylase and protease) and alignment of the 16S rRNA partial gene sequence to that available in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database GenBank. The functional role and significance of these haemolytic and blood‐digesting bacteria within the genus Culicoides remain to be determined.     

Marine management affects the invasion success of a non‐native species in a temperate reef system in California,USA

Despite promises that ‘healthy’ marine systems show increased resilience, the effects of ecosystem management strategies on invasion success in marine systems is still unclear. We show that resistance to the invasive alga, Sargassum horneri, in a temperate reef system occurs through alternate mechanisms in different ecosystem states. In an old marine protected area (MPA), invasion of S. horneri was suppressed, likely due to competitive pressure from native algae, resulting from protection of urchin predators. In a nearby fished urchin barren, invasion of S. horneri was also suppressed, due to herbivory by urchins whose predators are fished. Within newer MPAs with intermediate levels of interacting species, S. horneri was abundant. Here, neither competition from native algae nor herbivory was sufficient to prevent invasion. We confirm that invasion in marine systems is complex and show that multiple mechanisms in single systems must be considered when investigating biotic resistance hypotheses.     

A new integrative framework for large‐scale assessments of biodiversity and community dynamics,using littoral gastropods and crabs of British Columbia,Canada

Improving our understanding of species responses to environmental changes is an important contribution ecologists can make to facilitate effective management decisions. Novel synthetic approaches to assessing biodiversity and ecosystem integrity are needed, ideally including all species living in a community and the dynamics defining their ecological relationships. Here, we present and apply an integrative approach that links high‐throughput, multicharacter taxonomy with community ecology. The overall purpose is to enable the coupling of biodiversity assessments with investigations into the nature of ecological interactions in a community‐level data set. We collected 1195 gastropods and crabs in British Columbia. First, the General mixed Yule‐coalescent (GMYC) and the Poisson Tree Processes (PTP) methods for proposing primary species‐hypotheses based on cox1 sequences were evaluated against an integrative taxonomic framework. We then used data on the geographic distribution of delineated species to test species co‐occurrence patterns for nonrandomness using community‐wide and pairwise approaches. Results showed that PTP generally outperformed GMYC and thus constitutes a more effective option for producing species‐hypotheses in community‐level data sets. Nonrandom species co‐occurrence patterns indicative of ecological relationships or habitat preferences were observed for grazer gastropods, whereas assemblages of carnivorous gastropods and crabs appeared influenced by random processes. Species‐pair associations were consistent with current ecological knowledge, thus suggesting that applying community assembly within a large taxonomical framework constitutes a valuable tool for assessing ecological interactions. Combining phylogenetic, morphological and co‐occurrence data enabled an integrated view of communities, providing both a conceptual and pragmatic framework for biodiversity assessments and investigations into community dynamics.     

Simultaneous increases in specific growth rate and specific lipid content of Chlorella vulgaris through UV‐induced reactive species

A challenge in algae‐based bio‐oil production is to simultaneously enhance specific growth rates and specific lipid content. We have demonstrated simultaneous increases in both the above in Chlorella vulgaris through reactive species (RS) induced under ultraviolet (UV) A and UVB light treatments. We postulated that the changes in photosystem (PS) stoichiometry and antenna size were responsible for the increases in specific growth rate. UVB treatment excited PSII, which resulted in a twofold to sevenfold increase in PSII/PSI ratio compared to control. An excited PSII caused a 2.7‐fold increase in the specific levels of superoxide and a twofold increase in the specific levels of hydroxyl radicals. We have established that the increased specific intracellular RS (si‐RS) levels increased the PSII antenna size by a significant 10‐fold as compared to control. In addition, the 8.2‐fold increase in specific lipid content was directly related to the si‐RS levels. We have also demonstrated that the RS induced under UVA treatment led to a 3.2‐fold increase in the saturated to unsaturated fatty acid ratio. Based on the findings, we have proposed and demonstrated a UV‐based strategy, which achieved an 8.8‐fold increase in volumetric lipid productivity. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 30:291–299, 2014     

Composition of mixed‐species flocks and shifts in foraging location of flocking species on Hainan Island,China

A total of 134 bird species were recorded at Jianfengling, Hainan Island, in China from May 2000 to September 2004, of which 44 participated in one or more of 134 mixed‐species flocks. These flocks averaged 3.8 ± 0.2 species and 20.3 ± 1.2 individuals. Flocking propensity in a given species ranged from 1.5 to 100%. For flocking species, frequency of flocking and number of individuals in flocks was positively correlated with frequency and number in point counts. Among all species pairs with flocking frequency above 5%, cluster and correlation analysis indicated there were two principal groups of flocking birds – canopy species and understorey species: associations were positive within a group, but negative between groups. Canopy birds had a higher flocking propensity than understorey birds. They also made significantly less use of inner branches and trunks and greater use of middle branches, and foraged at a significantly greater height when in mixed‐species flocks than when solitary. For understorey bird species, there were no significant differences in foraging locations between solitary and mixed‐species flocks. Higher flocking frequency occurred in the wet season for canopy birds, but in the dry season for understorey birds. Overall patterns were consistent with the explanation that flocking enables an expansion of foraging niche by reducing the risk of predation.     

Isolation and characterization of 15 microsatellite loci in the poplar rust fungus,Melampsora larici‐populina,and cross‐amplification in related species

We developed 15 microsatellite loci in the poplar rust fungus, Melampsora larici‐populina, using two enrichment protocols. Polymorphism of each locus was assessed on a panel of 30 isolates, comprising three subpanels (world, regional and local scales). Thirteen loci were polymorphic with three to eight alleles detected. The 15 loci were also tested on five related Melampsora species, M. allii‐populina, M. medusae f. sp. deltoidae, M. larici‐tremulae, M. rostrupii and M. pinitorqua, and partial or global cross‐amplification events were detected.     

Species delimitation using morphology,morphometrics, and molecules: definition of the Ophion scutellaris Thomson species group,with descriptions of six new species (Hymenoptera,Ichneumonidae)

The diverse genus Ophion is almost entirely undescribed in the Nearctic region. In this paper we define the Ophion scutellaris species group. This species group is well-supported by analysis of DNA (ITS2, COI, and 28S D2-D3) and morphology. It includes the Palearctic species Ophion scutellaris and the Nearctic species Ophion idoneus. An integrative analysis of DNA, geometric wing morphometrics, classical morphometrics and qualitative morphology indicates that this species group contains a minimum of seven species in North America, although the full diversity of the group has likely not been sampled. Ophion clave Schwarzfeld, sp. n., Ophion aureus Schwarzfeld, sp. n., Ophion brevipunctatus Schwarzfeld, sp. n., Ophion dombroskii Schwarzfeld, sp. n., Ophion keala Schwarzfeld, sp. n. and Ophion importunus Schwarzfeld, sp. n. are described, and a key to the known Nearctic species of the Ophion scutellaris group is provided.     

Foraging behavior of migrant warblers in mixed‐species flocks in Venezuelan shade coffee: interspecific differences,tree species selection,and effects of drought

Shade coffee has been identified as an important habitat for Nearctic‐Neotropical migrants during the non‐breeding season, including species of conservation concern such as Cerulean Warblers (Setophaga cerulea). To better understand habitat features important for migrants in shade coffee, we studied the foraging behavior of migrants in mixed‐species flocks at six shade‐coffee farms in the Cordillera de Merida, Venezuela, in 2008–2009 and the El Niño drought year of 2009–2010. We examined interspecific differences in foraging behavior and tree species selection of three foliage‐gleaning migrants, Blackburnian (Setophaga fusca), Cerulean, and Tennessee (Oreothlypis peregrina) warblers, and aerial‐foraging American Redstarts (Setophaga ruticilla). For morphologically similar Blackburnian and Cerulean warblers, we also examined factors influencing foraging rates (attack and movement rates), capture of large prey, and maneuver/substrate type. We found that aerial‐foraging American Redstarts foraged lower, used more aerial maneuvers, showed no tree species selection, and were less likely to forage in flocks than foliage‐gleaners. Although foraging rates were similar for Blackburnian and Cerulean warblers, the three foliage‐gleaners differed in foraging height and use of maneuvers. Cerulean Warblers foraged lower than the other two species, whereas Blackburnian Warblers used the greatest proportion of woody gleans. All three foliage‐gleaners selected Inga spp. (a commonly planted shade tree in shade‐coffee farms) for foraging, and Blackburnian and Cerulean warblers captured a greater proportion of large prey in Inga spp. than in other tree species. During the drought year, Blackburnian and Cerulean warblers captured half as many large prey and used a greater proportion of woody‐gleans. We found that interactions among behavioral, floristic, and environmental drivers influenced the foraging behavior of migrants wintering in shade coffee. Our results support those of previous studies suggesting that migrants partition resources behaviorally during the non‐breeding season, that foliage‐gleaners may benefit from the presence of shade trees, especially Inga spp., in agroforestry systems, and that drought may influence the foraging behavior of foliage‐gleaning migrants, presumably due to reduced prey availability.     

Predation and oviposition by predatory Stethorus japonicus, Oligota kashmirica benefica, and Scolothrips takahashii in egg patches of various spider mite species

Predation and oviposition by three predacious insects [ Scolothrips takahashii Priesner (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), Stethorus japonicus H. Kamiya (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), and Oligota kashmirica benefica Naomi (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae)] were examined using egg patches of three spider mite species [ Amphitetranychus viennensis (Zacher), Tetranychus urticae Koch, and Panonychus mori Yokoyama (all Acari: Tetranychidae)] that are pest species on Japanese pear [ Pyrus serotina Rehder (Rosaceae)]. Scolothrips takahashii females consumed more prey and laid more eggs in A. viennensis and T. urticae egg patches than in P. mori egg patches. Females also left P. mori egg patches sooner than they left other egg patches even at high prey density. Predation and oviposition of S. takahashii in a prey patch were greatly enhanced by the complicated webs produced by A. viennensis . Stethorus japonicus females consumed significantly more prey and laid more eggs in A. viennensis egg patches than in P. mori egg patches, with intermediate values in T. urticae egg patches, reflecting the quality of each spider mite species as prey. Oligota kashmirica benefica females consumed more prey and laid more eggs in A. viennensis and T. urticae egg patches than in P. mori egg patches, particularly at high prey density. However, predation and oviposition by O. kashmirica benefica increased greatly with increasing prey density, even in P. mori egg patches, indicating that prey density was the most important factor in predation and oviposition by this species. These results are discussed in relation to the potential effect of each predator on the suppression of different spider mite species on Japanese pear.     

Isolation,characterization and cross‐species amplification of microsatellite DNA loci in the tropical American yam Dioscorea trifida

We developed microsatellite markers in American yam (Dioscorea trifida). A microsatellite sequence‐enriched genomic library was screened, and after sequencing, primers were designed for 20 microsatellites. Among these, eight primer pairs yielded amplification products that were both interpretable and polymorphic in 24 yam cultivars. The number of alleles per locus ranged from two to 13 and the overall expected heterozygosity was around 0.5. Six of the eight Dioscorea trifida microsatellite loci gave amplification products in other Dioscorea species.     

Macroevolution of hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae): the effect of using higher‐level taxa in studies of biodiversity,and correlates of species richness

We test a near‐complete genus level phylogeny of hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) for consistency with a null model of clade growth having uniform probabilities of speciation and extinction among contemporaneous species. The phylogeny is too unbalanced for this null model. Importantly, the degree of imbalance in the phylogeny depends on whether the phylogeny is analysed at the genus level or species level, suggesting that genera ought not to be used uncritically as surrogates for species in large‐scale evolutionary analyses. Tests for a range of morphological, life‐history and ecological correlates of diversity give equivocal results, but suggest that high species‐richness may be associated with sexual selection and diet breadth. We find no correlation between species‐richness and either body size or reproductive rate.     

A characterization of missingness at random in a generalized shared‐parameter joint modeling framework for longitudinal and time‐to‐event data,and sensitivity analysis

We consider a conceptual correspondence between the missing data setting, and joint modeling of longitudinal and time‐to‐event outcomes. Based on this, we formulate an extended shared random effects joint model. Based on this, we provide a characterization of missing at random, which is in line with that in the missing data setting. The ideas are illustrated using data from a study on liver cirrhosis, contrasting the new framework with conventional joint models.