孤独症谱系障碍动物模型研究进展

孤独症谱系障碍(austim spectrum disorder,ASD)近来全球发病率不断升高,但该病的病因及发病机制尚未明确,从动物模型出发探索疾病的病因及发病机制是必然趋势。国内对本病的认识及动物模型研究相对滞后,国际上ASD动物模型可大概分为基因遗传模型、特发性动物模型及调控环境因素动物模型三大类,其中基因遗传模型较多,但研究针对性过强;特发性模型中的BTBR模型及调控环境因素模型中的丙戊酸诱导模型能够较好地呈现ASD典型临床症状及部分病理学特征,为当前主要应用模型。ASD的研究尚缺乏完整符合结构有效性、表面有效性、预测有效性的理想动物模型。     

Behavioral phenotypes of genetic mouse models of autism

More than a hundred de novo single gene mutations and copy‐number variants have been implicated in autism, each occurring in a small subset of cases. Mutant mouse models with syntenic mutations offer research tools to gain an understanding of the role of each gene in modulating biological and behavioral phenotypes relevant to autism. Knockout, knockin and transgenic mice incorporating risk gene mutations detected in autism spectrum disorder and comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders are now widely available. At present, autism spectrum disorder is diagnosed solely by behavioral criteria. We developed a constellation of mouse behavioral assays designed to maximize face validity to the types of social deficits and repetitive behaviors that are central to an autism diagnosis. Mouse behavioral assays for associated symptoms of autism, which include cognitive inflexibility, anxiety, hyperactivity, and unusual reactivity to sensory stimuli, are frequently included in the phenotypic analyses. Over the past 10 years, we and many other laboratories around the world have employed these and additional behavioral tests to phenotype a large number of mutant mouse models of autism. In this review, we highlight mouse models with mutations in genes that have been identified as risk genes for autism, which work through synaptic mechanisms and through the mTOR signaling pathway. Robust, replicated autism‐relevant behavioral outcomes in a genetic mouse model lend credence to a causal role for specific gene contributions and downstream biological mechanisms in the etiology of autism.     

孤独症谱系障碍小鼠肠道屏障功能研究

研究孤独症谱系障碍（ASD）模型小鼠肠道屏障功能及肠道动力的改变情况,为微生物−肠−脑轴在ASD发病中的作用提供理论基础。

C57bl/6J雌鼠和雄鼠交配,丙戊酸钠（VPA）诱导的ASD模型及对照组小鼠分别于孕12.5天皮下注射VPA或生理盐水。BTBR模型组为BTBR T⁺Itpr3^tf/J小鼠交配所产幼雄鼠。各组小鼠出生3周后,每窝随机选择2只雄鼠,各组5窝,共计10只,纳入相应组别。各组小鼠6周开始按如下顺序进行行为学检测：旷场实验、埋珠实验、三室社交实验、发声检测和自我梳理实验,各检测间隔5 d。评估小鼠肠道动力（粪便含水量及小肠推进率）和小鼠肠道屏障功能：FITC-葡聚糖灌胃后光谱仪检测小鼠血清中FITC-葡聚糖水平;Western blot检测各组小鼠结肠TREK1,CLDN1,CLDN3,OCLN及ZO1蛋白的表达;qPCR检测各组小鼠结肠Il6,Tnf-α和Ifn-γ mRNA的表达情况。

行为学检测结果显示：与对照组相比,BTBR组和VPA组小鼠穿越旷场中间区次数和停留时间显著降低（P＜0.05）;于目标小鼠侧室的停留时间率显著降低（P＜0.05）;埋珠率和自我梳理时间均显著升高（P＜0.05）;在（20～50）kHz和（50～100）kHz频率范围的发声次数及持续时间均显著降低（P＜0.05）。与对照组相比,BTBR组小鼠粪便含水量显著降低（P＜0.05）,而VPA组小鼠的差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。BTBR组和VPA组小鼠小肠推进率与对照组相比无差异（P＞0.05）。此外,与对照组相比,BTBR组和VPA组小鼠血清FITC−葡聚糖水平均升高,结肠TREK1,CLDN1,CLDN3,OCLD蛋白的表达水平降低,结肠Il6,Tnf-α和Ifn-γ mRNA的表达显著升高,差异均具有统计学意义（P＜0.05）,而ZO1的表达差异无统计学意义（P＞0.05）。

鉴于BTBR及VPA模型小鼠均表现出与ASD患者类似的广泛行为障碍,上述模型可作为ASD研究的可靠参考。与此同时,两种ASD小鼠模型均出现肠道紧密连接蛋白表达下调,肠道屏障通透性和促炎细胞因子水平的增高,表明微生物−肠−脑轴在ASD发病中扮演重要角色,且对治疗ASD症状具有潜在临床价值。

     

Comprehensive analysis of two Shank3 and the Cacna1c mouse models of autism spectrum disorder

To expand, analyze and extend published behavioral phenotypes relevant to autism spectrum disorder (ASD), we present a study of three ASD genetic mouse models: Feng's Shank3^tm2Gfng model, hereafter Shank3/F, Jiang's Shank3^tm1Yhj model, hereafter Shank3/J and the Cacna1c deletion model. The Shank3 models mimick gene mutations associated with Phelan–McDermid Syndrome and the Cacna1c model recapitulates the deletion underlying Timothy syndrome. This study utilizes both standard and novel behavioral tests with the same methodology used in our previously published companion report on the Cntnap2 null and 16p11.2 deletion models. We found that some but not all behaviors replicated published findings and those that did replicate, such as social behavior and overgrooming in Shank3 models, tended to be milder than reported elsewhere. The Shank3/F model, and to a much lesser extent, the Shank3/J and Cacna1c models, showed hypoactivity and a general anxiety‐like behavior triggered by external stimuli which pervaded social interactions. We did not detect deficits in a cognitive procedural learning test nor did we observe perseverative behavior in these models. We did, however, find differences in exploratory patterns of Cacna1c mutant mice suggestive of a behavioral effect in a social setting. In addition, only Shank3/F showed differences in sensory‐gating. Both positive and negative results from this study will be useful in identifying the most robust and replicable behavioral signatures within and across mouse models of autism. Understanding these phenotypes may shed light of which features to study when screening compounds for potential therapeutic interventions.     

Male‐specific alteration in excitatory post‐synaptic development and social interaction in pre‐natal valproic acid exposure model of autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a pervasive developmental disorder characterized by three main behavioral symptoms including social deficits, impaired communication, and stereotyped and repetitive behaviors. ASD prevalence shows gender bias to male. Prenatal exposure to valproic acid (VPA), a drug used in epilepsy and bipolar disorder, induces autistic symptoms in both human and rodents. As we reported previously, prenatally VPA‐exposed animals at E12 showed impairment in social behavior without any overt reproductive toxicity. Social interactions were not significantly different between male and female rats in control condition. However, VPA‐exposed male offspring showed significantly impaired social interaction while female offspring showed only marginal deficits in social interaction. Similar male inclination was observed in hyperactivity behavior induced by VPA. In addition to the ASD‐like behavioral phenotype, prenatally VPA‐exposed rat offspring shows crooked tail phenotype, which was not different between male and female groups. Both male and female rat showed reduced GABAergic neuronal marker GAD and increased glutamatergic neuronal marker vGluT1 expression. Interestingly, despite of the similar increased expression of vGluT1, post‐synaptic marker proteins such as PSD‐95 and α‐CAMKII expression was significantly elevated only in male offspring. Electron microscopy showed increased number of post‐synapse in male but not in female at 4 weeks of age. These results might suggest that the altered glutamatergic neuronal differentiation leads to deranged post‐synaptic maturation only in male offspring prenatally exposed to VPA. Consistent with the increased post‐synaptic compartment, VPA‐exposed male rats showed higher sensitivity to electric shock than VPA‐exposed female rats. These results suggest that prenatally VPA‐exposed rats show the male preponderance of ASD‐like behaviors including defective social interaction similar to human autistic patients, which might be caused by ectopic increase in glutamatergic synapses in male rats.     

Mouse model systems of autism spectrum disorder: Replicability and informatics signature

Phenotyping mouse model systems of human disease has proven to be a difficult task, with frequent poor inter‐ and intra‐laboratory replicability, particularly in behavioral domains such as social and cognitive function. However, establishing robust animal model systems with strong construct validity is of fundamental importance as they are central tools for understanding disease pathophysiology and developing therapeutics. To complete our studies of mouse model systems relevant to autism spectrum disorder (ASD), we present a replication of the main findings from our two published studies of five genetic mouse model systems of ASD. To assess the intra‐laboratory robustness of previous results, we chose the two model systems that showed the greatest phenotypic differences, the Shank3/F and Cntnap2, and repeated assessments of general health, activity and social behavior. We additionally explored all five model systems in the same framework, comparing all results obtained in this three‐yearlong effort using informatics techniques to assess commonalities and differences. Our results showed high intra‐laboratory replicability of results, even for those with effect sizes that were not particularly large, suggesting that discrepancies in the literature may be dependent on subtle but pivotal differences in testing conditions, housing enrichment, or background strains and less so on the variability of the behavioral phenotypes. The overall informatics analysis suggests that in our behavioral assays we can separate the set of tested mouse model system into two main classes that in some aspects lie on opposite ends of the behavioral spectrum, supporting the view that autism is not a unitary concept.     

Maternal and offspring methylenetetrahydrofolate‐reductase genotypes interact in a mouse model to induce autism spectrum disorder‐like behavior

Individuals with autism constitute a variable population whose members are spread along the autism spectrum. Subpopulations within that spectrum exhibit other conditions, such as anxiety, intellectual disabilities, hyperactivity and epilepsy, with different severities and co‐occurrences. Among the genes associated with the increased risk for autism is the methylenetetrahydrofolate‐reductase (MTHFR) 677C>T polymorphism, which impairs one‐carbon (C1) metabolic pathway efficiency. The frequency of the MTHFR677TT homozygote is markedly higher among autism patients and their mothers than in the general population. Here, we report on the Mthfr heterozygous knockout (KO) mouse as a rodent model of autism that shows the contributions of maternal and offspring genotypes to the development of autistic‐like behaviors. Maternal Mthfr‐deficiency was associated with developmental delays in morphogenic features and sensory‐motor reflexes in offspring. In the adult male mouse, behaviors representing core autism symptoms, such as repetitive behavior and restricted interest, were affected by maternal genotype while social behaviors were affected by both maternal and offspring genotypes. In females and males, behaviors associated with autism such as memory impairment, social aggression and anxiety were affected by both the maternal and offspring Mthfr genotypes, with sex‐dependent differences. Mthfr‐deficient male mice with observable impacts on behavior presented a particular laminar disturbance in parvalbumin interneuron density and innervation in superficial and deep layers of the cingulate cortex. This mouse model of autism will help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that predispose a significant subgroup of autistic patients to abnormal development and to distinguish between the in‐utero and autonomous factors involved in autism.     

Activation of the medial preoptic area (MPOA) ameliorates loss of maternal behavior in a Shank2 mouse model for autism

Impairments in social relationships and awareness are features observed in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). However, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Shank2 is a high‐confidence ASD candidate gene and localizes primarily to postsynaptic densities (PSDs) of excitatory synapses in the central nervous system (CNS). We show here that loss of Shank2 in mice leads to a lack of social attachment and bonding behavior towards pubs independent of hormonal, cognitive, or sensitive deficits. Shank2 ^−/− mice display functional changes in nuclei of the social attachment circuit that were most prominent in the medial preoptic area (MPOA) of the hypothalamus. Selective enhancement of MPOA activity by DREADD technology re‐established social bonding behavior in Shank2 ^−/− mice, providing evidence that the identified circuit might be crucial for explaining how social deficits in ASD can arise.