布雷费尔德对真菌的进化观点在真菌分类中所起的影响

布雷费尔德(O. Brefeld)虽对真菌纯培养方法的改进和真菌发育与生理知识作出了不少贡献,但他的主要贡献还是对真菌系统发育的观点。按照他的这种观点,卵菌不是真正的真菌,它应与粘菌一起排除在真菌之外,而真正的真菌应从接合菌开始。他并将子囊菌和担子菌分别分为半子囊菌和真子囊菌,半担子菌和真担子菌。     

SUMMARY OF GREEN PLANT PHYLOGENY AND CLASSIFICATION

Abstract— A cladogram of green plants involving all major extant groups of green algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, and seed plants is presented. It is partly based on contributions by B. Mishler and S. Churchill, H. Wagner, and P. Crane. The relationships of green plants to other green organisms ( Prochloron , euglenophytes) are discussed. The characters and subclades of the cladogram are briefly discussed, with an attempt to indicate weak points. The possibility of including some major extinct groups is considered. A cladistic classification consistent with the cladogram is presented. Grades are abandoned as taxa and major clades like the division Chlorophyta (green algae excluding micro-monadophytes and charophytes sensu Mattox and Stewart), the division Streptophyta (charophytes + embryophytes), the subdivision Embryophytina (land plants or embryophytes), the superclass Tracheidatae (tracheophytes), and the class Spermatopsida (seed plants) are recognized.     

雀形目高级阶元分类与起源研究概况

对雀肜目鸟类高级阶元的分类和系统发育的研究进行了简要概述.经典分类与应用分子生物学方法建立的分类系统在高级阶元(总科)有较大差异,但科级的分类基本一致.在雀形目鸟类起源研究方面,古生物学研究结果认为其起源于劳亚古陆;而分子生物学的证据则认为其起源于冈瓦纳古陆.由于化石的证据与"分子钟"的推测年代相差较大,因此对雀形目鸟类的起源还存在争议,但是目前的研究更倾向于"冈瓦纳起源"假说.     

PHYLOGENY AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE PANDALOIDEA (CRUSTACEA, CARIDEA)

Abstract— A manual cladistic analysis, subsequently expanded with a PAUP computer analysis, was performed on 21 genera of the monophyletic taxon Pandaloidea. Morphological data were obtained from the literature for 146 of the 152 known species-group taxa and from specimens belonging to 11 genera and 15 species—those of Pantomus parvulus extending the known range from the North Western Atlantic to Uruguay. The taxon Physetocaridoidca was synonymized with Pandaloidea, and the genus Pandalopsis with “Pandalus”. I have rejected reversal hypotheses indicated by the computer for four transformation series and chosen a final cladogram of slightly different topology which is six steps longer than the shortest tree. The cladogram for 20 terminal taxa is based on 108 apomorphic characters, resolved into 155 steps (72 synapomorphies and 83 homoplasies and reversals). The following sequenced phylogenctic classification is proposed: Pandaloidea; Pandalidae; Pantominae subfam.n.; Notopandalus [N. magnoculus]; Peripandalus [P. serratus]; Pantomus; P. ajfinis; P. parvulus; Pandalinae; Austropandalini trib.n.; Austropandalus [A. grayi]; Pandalina; P. brevirostris; P. profunda; Pandalini; Dichdopandalus; D. bonnieri; D. leptorerus; Pandalus: “Plcsionikidae” [“Plesionika”]; Heterocarpidae [Heterocarpus]; Heterocarpoididae fam.n. [Heterocarpoides] [H. levicarina]; Dorodoteidae fam.n. [Dorodotes] [D. reflexus]; Thalassocarididae; Chlorotocus; C. crassicornis; C. novaezelandiae; Chlorotocoides [C. spinicauda]; Thalassocaris;, T. obscura; T. crimia; T. lucida; Physetocandidae; Stylopandalus [S. richardi]; Chlorotocella; C. gracilis; C. leptorhjnehus; Physetocaris [P. microphthalma]; Chlorocurtis [C. jactans]; Anachlorocurtis [A, commensalis]; Miropandalus [M. hardingi]. Quotation marks indicate taxa of uncertain systematic status. Square brackets indicate redundant, phylogenetically uninformative, genus and species-level taxa maintained in the classification to comply with the principle of binominal nomenclature.     

缘蝽总科支序分析及其高级分类系统(半翅目:异翅亚目)(英)

本文在已有大量比较形态学研究和各科支序分析研究基础上,对缘蝽总科的科、亚科、族等亚群的系统发育关系作了支序分析研究,结果表明,缘蝽总科、蛛缘蝽科、姬缘蝽科的单系群地位得到证明。而缘蝽科由于其棒缘蝽亚科和希缘蝽亚科分别占据支序图的两个最低位置,它们在缘蝽总科中具有较多的原始特征,缘蝽亚科的Chariesterini族与南美缘蝽亚科互为姐妹群而与缘蝽亚科其它族差异较大;姬缘蝽科的红缘蝽亚科处在该分支的最高位置且与姬缘蝽亚科中的Harmostini族互为姐妹群,与姬缘蝽亚科其它族关系也较近,因而传统的缘蝽科、缘蝽亚科、姬缘蝽亚科为并系群。为使各分类单元为单系群即自然类群,使分类系统更忠实于系统发育关系,本文将棒缘蝽亚科和希缘蝽亚科分别提升为科,Chariesterini族提升为亚科;红缘蝽亚科降为族,姬缘蝽科不设亚科。据上述分类学变动提出了缘蝽总科族以上高级阶分类系统。     

CLADISTIC ANALYSIS AND HIGHER CLASSIFICATION OF COREOIDEA (HETEROPTERA)

Abstract  A cladistic analysis of tribes and subfamilies included in Coreidae, Rhopalidae and Alydidae of the superfamily Coreoidea, based on 60 apomorphies, has been made in the present paper. The results indicate that both the Pseudophloeinae and Hydarinae of Coreidae are monophyletic and occupy the two lowest positions in the cladogram in comparison with the other coreid groups; the tribe Chariesterini of Coreinae is a sister group with Meropachydinae; Serinethini (the only tribe of "Serinethinae", Rhopalidae) is a sister group with Harmostini of Rhopalinae in the rhopalid offset of the cladogram. These mean the traditional Coreidae, Coreinae, and Rhopalinae are paraphyletic groups. According to the results of the snalysis and their characteristics, the "Pseudophloeinae" and "Hydarinae" are raised to family category respectively, the tribe Chariesterini is raised to subfamily category in family Coreidae; the traditional Serinethinae is suppressed to tribe category (no subfamilial ranks will be set up in Rhopalidae), so that all the groups are natural and the paraphyletic groups are avoided in the superfamily, and no this basis a new higher classification system of Coreoidea is suggested.     

THE EARLY RADIATION AND PHYLOGENY OF ECHINODERMS

1. Living echinoderms are characterized by an extensive water vascular system developed from the larval left hydrocoel, a complex, multi-plated endoskeleton with stereom structure, and pentamery. Fossil evidence shows that stereom evolved before pentamery, but both were acquired during the Lower Cambrian. 2. Cladistic analysis of Lower Cambrian genera reveals very few characters in common between carpoids and true echinoderms, and that the split between them was the first fundamental evolutionary dichotomy within the Dexiothetica. 3. Helicoplacoids are stem group echinoderms with spiral plating and three ambulacra arranged radially around a lateral mouth. They are the most primitive echinoderms and the first to show a radial arrangement of the water vascular and ambulacral systems. Unlike later echinoderms, their skeleton shows no dorsal/ventral (aboral/oral) differentiation. They were probably sedentary suspension feeders. 4. Camptostroma is the most primitive known pentaradiate echinoderm and, in our view, possibly a common ancestor of all living groups. It had a short conical dorsal (aboral) surface with imbricate plating, a ridged lateral wall and a slightly domed ventral (oral) surface with five curved ambulacra in a 2-1-2 arrangement inherited from the triradiate pattern of the helicoplacoids. Interambulacral areas bore epispires and the CD interambulacrum contained the anus, hydropore and/or gonopore. All parts of the theca had plates in at least two layers. 5. All other echinoderms belong to one of two monophyletic subphyla, the Pelmatozoa and the Eleutherozoa. 6. Stromatocystites is the earliest known eleutherozoan and differs from Camptostroma in having a test with only one layer of plates and having lost the dorsal elongation. In Stromatocystites the dorsal surface is flat and the plating tesselate. Stromatocystites was an unattached, low-level suspension feeder. 7. The lepidocystoids are the earliest known pelmatozoans. They differ from Camptostroma in having an attached dorsal stalk which retained the primitive imbricate plating, and by developing erect feeding structures along the ambulacra. In Kinzercystis, the ambulacra are confined to the thecal surface and erect, biserial brachioles arise alternately on either side. Lepidocystis has a similar arrangement except that, the distal part of each ambulacrum extends beyond the edge of the theca as a free arm. 8. Pelmatozoans diverged more or less immediately into crinoids, with multiple free arms composed of uniserial plates, and cystoids sensu lato, which retained brachioles. Gogia (Lower to Middle Cambrian) is the most primitive known cystoid and differs from Kinzercystis principally in having all plating tesselate, while Echmatocrinus (Middle Cambrian) is the most primitive known crinoid and differs from Lepidocystis in lacking brachioles and in having more than five free arms with uniserial plates. 9. Post Lower Cambrian differentiation of pelmatozoan groups proceeded rapidly, exploiting the primitive suspension-feeding mode of life. Maximum morphological diversity was reached in the Ordovician, but thereafter crinoids progressively displaced cystoid groups and reached their peak diversity during the Carboniferous. The eleutherozoans were slower to diversify, but by the Arenig the earliest ‘sea-stars’ (in reality, advanced members of the eleutherozoan stem group) had reversed their living orientation and had begun to exploit a deposit-feeding mode of life. These in turn led to the ophiuroids, echinoids and holothuroids. 10. The basic echinoderm ambulacrum was already present in the helicoplacoids. It had biserial, alternate flooring plates and complexly plated sheets of cover plates on either side. The radial water vessel lay in the floor of the ambulacrum, external to the body cavity, and gave rise ventrally to short, lateral branches (fore-runners of tube feet) that were used to open the cover plate sheets, and dorsally was connected to internal compensation sacs which acted as fluid reservoirs (and were preadapted for a role in gaseous exchange). Plating on the cover plate sheets was organized and reflected the positions of the lateral branches from the radial water vessel. In Camptostroma, the cover plate sheets had biserially aligned rows of cover plates associated with the lateral branches. 11. Brachioles arose by extension of the lateral branches of the radial water vessel and associated serially aligned cover plates found in Camptostroma. They bear a single alternate series of cover plates. In Lepidocystis the ambulacra extended beyond the edge of the oral surface as true arms. Brachial plates of arms are homologues of primary ambulacral flooring plates, and arms bear multiple series of cover plates. Uniserial ambulacral plating is a derived condition and evolved independently in crinoids, paracrinoids and isorophid edrioasteroids. Pinnules in crinoids arose independently in inadunates and camerates by a progressively more unequal branching of the arms. Thus all parts of the subvective system in crinoids are internally homologous, whereas in cystoids, brachioles and arms (or ambulacra) are not homologous structures. 12. The position of the hydropore is the best reference point in orientating echinoderms. Carpenter's system of identifying ambulacra by letters, arranged clock-wise in oral view with the A ambulacrum opposite the hydropore, is consistent in all echinoderm classes. In all Lower Cambrian pentaradiate echinoderms the anus, gonopore and hydropore lie in the CD interambulacrum and this is accepted as the primitive arrangement. In helicoplacoids we tentatively suggest that the A ambulacrum spiralled down from the mouth while the two ambulacra that spiralled up represent the B + C and D + E ambulacra combined. 13. The pelmatozoan stem arose from a polyplated stalk, via a meric stem to a true column with holomeric (single piece) columnals. This happened independently in the crinoids and the cystoids. 14. Our analysis of echinoderm phylogeny leads us to recommend the following changes to the higher level classification of echinoderms: The phylum Echinodermata includes only those groups with radial symmetry superimposed upon a fundamental larval asymmetry. It has a stem group that contains the triradiate helicoplacoids and a crown group to which all other (pentaradiate) echinoderms belong. The crown group contains two monophyletic subphyla, the Pelmatozoa and the Eleutherozoa, and the Pelmatozoa contains two superclasses, the Crinoidea which are extant and the Cystoidea, which are extinct.     

紊蒿属一新种和对该属分类及演化的讨论

对新种多头紊蒿(Elachanthemum polycephalum Z.Y.Zhu et C.Z.Liang)的形态特征进行了描述,并从形态和生态特征、地理分布及其区系起源等方面探讨了紊蒿属(Elachanthemum Y.Ling et Y.R.Ling)的分类地位。结果表明：紊蒿属与百花蒿属(Stilpnolepis Krasch.)在形态上虽有相近之处,但花、果实和花粉等形态差异明显,因而不能并入百花蒿属,而应独立成属。该属起源于第三纪亚洲北部的古蒿类群(Pro-Artemisia L.),是蒿类中较为原始的属,为古地中海东部残遗的旱生成分,也是现代亚洲中部荒漠(戈壁荒漠)的持有属;多头紊蒿新种的发现,使紊蒿属从单种属变成寡种(双种)属,表明荒漠植物区系的物种分化仍在进行。     

COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY AND PHYLOGENY OF THE RANALES

Comparative morphological studies of woody Ranales have established the primitive status of the group and hence their key place in angiosperm phylogeny. Significant advances in our knowledge of some ranalian families have been made in recent years. An attempt is made in the present review to bring together a range of morphological data (vegetative and floral anatomy, palynology and embryology) on the Ranales (sensu lato), with particular reference to research work published after the publication of Eames's (1961) book, and to discuss the relationships of the families. Recent ontogenetic studies have shown that the carpel of Drimys is ascidial and not conduplicate as earlier suggested. The inclusion of Degeneria in the Winteraceae is not supported by morphological data. Melville's gonophyll theory has been shown to be inapplicable to the magnoliaceous flower. The pollen of Schisandra is interpreted as derived and specialized rather than primitive as previously supposed. The removal of Schisandra from Magnoliaceae is upheld by morphological evidence. Recent morphological studies do not support a close relationship between Schisandraceae and Illiciaceae suggested by earlier authors. The Canellaceae shows similarities to Winteraceae, Magnoliaceae, Illiciaceae, Eupteleaceae and Myristicaceae. Transitional types of division of pollen mother cells found in Winteraceae, Schisandraceae and Annonaceae and their probable phylogenetic significance have been discussed. The Annonaceae, Winteraceae, Degeneriaceae, Magnoliaceae, Schisandraceae and Cercidiphyllaceae share several embryological features in addition to similarities in floral structure. Ruminate endosperm is regarded either as an archaic feature retained in some taxa or as a later and parallel development in others. Thus its value in assessing relationships seems to be doubtful. Myristicaceae has been shown to be closely related neither to the the Annonaceae nor to the Lauraceae. The suggested relationship of Eupomatiaceae to Annonaceae is not supported by palynology. Floral cortical vascular systems in Magnoliaceae, Annonaceae, Calycanthaceae and Myristicaceae have been compared and it is concluded that they may be vestigial structures. A great deal of similarity has been found between Lauraceae and Calycanthaceae in wood, node, flower structure and embryology. Further floral anatomical evidence has been adduced to support the removal of Scyphostegia from Monimiaceae. The Hernandiaceae show similarities to some members of Monimiaceae while the Gyrocarpaceae resemble the Lauraceae, Gomortegaceae and certain other genera of Monimiaceae. Available evidence from wood and floral anatomy and embryology indicates close relationships among Lauraceae, Monimiaceae and Hernandiaceae. Vegetative and floral anatomical and embryological data seem to indicate a place for the Chloranthaceae in the ranalian complex. Recent anatomical studies in the Nymphaeaceae show that the floral structure is of a primitive type with similarities to the woody Ranales. Available morphological evidence is considered inadequate to express an opinion on the splitting of the family. Ceratophyllaceae is regarded as a highly reduced ranalian family derived most probably from a nymphaeaceous stock. The gynoecium in Berberidaceae is interpreted as monocarpellate. No evidence has been found to support the tricarpellate view. Berberidaceae, Lardizabalaceae and Menispermaceae share several embryological features, while at the same time showing evidence of specialization, each in its own way. Thus they might have arisen from a common stock and early diverged along different lines. The occurrence of several types of embryo sac in Ranunculaceae may well be an indication of specialization, but their probable taxonomic value, if any, is not yet clear. The occurrence of numerous primitive features in Paeonia has been suggested as an argument for its retention in the Ranales. No evidence has been found to preclude the inclusion of Dilleniaceae in the Ranales. On the other hand, as opposed to similarities in wood and pollen characters between Dilleniaceae and Theaceae, floral anatomical and embryological features offer a sharp contrast between the two. The Ranales are believed to be polyphyletic. It has been tentatively suggested that two major phyletic lines may be recognized in each of the woody and herbaceous series: the magnolialian and lauralian lines in the former and the nymphaealian and berberidalian lines in the latter.