Reduced cellulose synthesis invokes lignification and defense responses in Arabidopsis thaliana

The cell wall determines the shape of plant cells and is also the primary interface for pathogen interactions. The structure of the cell wall can be modified in response to developmental and environmental cues, for example to strengthen the wall and to create barriers to pathogen ingress. The ectopic lignin 1-1 and 1-2 (eli1-1 and eli1-2) mutations lead to an aberrant deposition of lignin, a complex phenylpropanoid polymer. We show that the eli1 mutants occur in the cellulose synthase gene CESA3 in Arabidopsis thaliana and cause reduced cellulose synthesis, providing further evidence for the function of multiple CESA subunits in cellulose synthesis. We show that reduced levels of cellulose synthesis, caused by mutations in cellulose synthase genes and in genes affecting cell expansion, activate lignin synthesis and defense responses through jasmonate and ethylene and other signaling pathways. These observations suggest that mechanisms monitoring cell wall integrity can activate lignification and defense responses.     

Cellulose biosynthesis and deposition in higher plants

The plant cell wall is central to plant development. Cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls, and is the world's most abundant biopolymer. Cellulose contains apparently simple linear chains of glucose residues, but these chains aggregate to form immensely strong microfibrils. It is the physical properties of these microfibrils that, when laid down in an organized manner, are responsible for both oriented cell elongation during plant growth and the strength required to maintain an upright growth habit. Despite the importance of cellulose, only recently have we started to unravel details of its synthesis. Mutational analysis has allowed us to identify some of the proteins involved in its synthesis at the plasma membrane, and to define a set of cellulose synthase enzymes essential for cellulose synthesis. These proteins are organized into a very large plasma membrane-localized protein complex. The way in which this protein complex is regulated and directed is central in depositing cellulose microfibrils in the wall in the correct orientation, which is essential for directional cell growth. Recent developments have given us clues as to how cellulose synthesis and deposition is regulated, an understanding of which is essential if we are to manipulate cell wall composition.     

Cell expansion in the epidermis: microtubules, cellulose orientation and wall loosening enzymes

Two models of isolated epidermis were used to demonstrate that the net orientation of cellulose microfibrils in the cell wall is related to mechanical properties of the tissue, and can be used as an indicator for wall anisotropy. In the developing plant epidermis, cells expand in one or two directions in the plane of the plant surface. In epidermis cells actively expanding in one direction (elongation), the orientation of cortical microtubules closely matches the net cellulose orientation. In epidermis cells expanding in two directions, the orientation of the parallel microtubules does not coincide with the net cellulose orientation in the adjacent cell wall. The orientation of cortical microtubules is thus not always a reliable indicator of wall characteristics. In both types of epidermis, a high rate of expansion correlates with a high activity of xyloglucan endotransglycosylase (XET), as determinedin situ. This high activity alone cannot explain unidirectional wall expansion.     

Modification of polysaccharides and plant cell wall by endo-1,4-beta-glucanase and cellulose-binding domains

Cellulose is one of the most abundant polymers in nature. Different living systems evolved simultaneously, using structurally similar proteins to synthesize and metabolize polysaccharides. In the growing plant, cell wall loosening, together with cellulose biosynthesis, enables turgor-driven cell expansion. It has been postulated that endo-1,4-beta-glucanases (EGases) play a central role in these complex activities. Similarly, microorganisms use a consortium of lytic enzymes to convert cellulose into soluble sugars. Most, if not all, cellulases have a modular structure with two or more separate independent functional domains. Binding to cellulose is mediated by a cellulose-binding domain (CBD), whereas the catalytic domain mediates hydrolysis. Today, EGases and CBDs are known to exist in a wide range of species and it is evident that both possess immense potential in modifying polysaccharide materials in-vivo and in-vitro. The hydrolytic function is utilized for polysaccharide degradation in microbial systems and cell wall biogenesis in plants. The CBDs exerts activity that can be utilized for effective degradation of crystalline cellulose, plant cell wall relaxation, expansion and cell wall biosynthesis. Applications range from modulating the architecture of individual cells to an entire organism. These genes, when expressed under specific promoters and appropriate trafficking signals can be used to alter the nutritional value and texture of agricultural crop and their final products. EGases and CBDs may also find applications in the modification of physical and chemical properties of composite materials to create new materials possessing improved properties.     

Two Leucine-Rich Repeat Receptor Kinases Mediate Signaling,Linking Cell Wall Biosynthesis and ACC Synthase in Arabidopsis

The plant cell wall is a dynamic structure that changes in response to developmental and environmental cues through poorly understood signaling pathways. We identified two Leu-rich repeat receptor-like kinases in Arabidopsis thaliana that play a role in regulating cell wall function. Mutations in these FEI1 and FEI2 genes (named for the Chinese word for fat) disrupt anisotropic expansion and the synthesis of cell wall polymers and act additively with inhibitors or mutations disrupting cellulose biosynthesis. While FEI1 is an active protein kinase, a kinase-inactive version of FEI1 was able to fully complement the fei1 fei2 mutant. The expansion defect in fei1 fei2 roots was suppressed by inhibition of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase, an enzyme that converts Ado-Met to ACC in ethylene biosynthesis, but not by disruption of the ethylene response pathway. Furthermore, the FEI proteins interact directly with ACC synthase. These results suggest that the FEI proteins define a novel signaling pathway that regulates cell wall function, likely via an ACC-mediated signal.     

Growth of the plant cell wall

Plant cells encase themselves within a complex polysaccharide wall, which constitutes the raw material that is used to manufacture textiles, paper, lumber, films, thickeners and other products. The plant cell wall is also the primary source of cellulose, the most abundant and useful biopolymer on the Earth. The cell wall not only strengthens the plant body, but also has key roles in plant growth, cell differentiation, intercellular communication, water movement and defence. Recent discoveries have uncovered how plant cells synthesize wall polysaccharides, assemble them into a strong fibrous network and regulate wall expansion during cell growth.     

Knockout of the AtCESA2 gene affects microtubule orientation and causes abnormal cell expansion in Arabidopsis

Complete cellulose synthesis is required to form functional cell walls and to facilitate proper cell expansion during plant growth. AtCESA2 is a member of the cellulose synthase A family in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) that participates in cell wall formation. By analysis of transgenic seedlings, we demonstrated that AtCESA2 was expressed in all organs, except root hairs. The atcesa2 mutant was devoid of AtCESA2 expression, leading to the stunted growth of hypocotyls in seedlings and greatly reduced seed production in mature plants. These observations were attributed to alterations in cell size as a result of reduced cellulose synthesis in the mutant. The orientation of microtubules was also altered in the atcesa2 mutant, which was clearly observed in hypocotyls and petioles. Complementary expression of AtCESA2 in atcesa2 could rescue the mutant phenotypes. Together, we conclude that disruption of cellulose synthesis results in altered orientation of microtubules and eventually leads to abnormal plant growth. We also demonstrated that the zinc finger-like domain of AtCESA2 could homodimerize, possibly contributing to rosette assemblies of cellulose synthase A within plasma membranes.     

A link between sterol biosynthesis, the cell wall, and cellulose in Arabidopsis

A crucial role for sterols in plant growth and development is underscored by the identification of three Arabidopsis sterol biosynthesis mutants that exhibit embryonic defects: fackel (fk), hydra1 (hyd1), and sterol methyltransferase 1/cephalopod (smt1/cph). We have taken a dual approach of sterol profiling and ultrastructural analysis to investigate the primary defects underlying the mutant phenotypes. Comprehensive gas chromatography GC-MS analysis of hyd1 in comparison to fk reveals an abnormal accumulation of unique sterol intermediates in each case. Sterol profiling of the fk hyd1 double mutant provides genetic evidence that FK C-14 reductase acts upstream of HYD1 C-8,7 isomerase. Despite distinct differences in sterol profiles, fk and hyd1 as well as smt1/cph share ultrastructural features such as incomplete cell walls and aberrant cell wall thickenings in embryonic and post-embryonic tissues. The common defects are coupled with ectopic callose and lignin deposits. We show that all three mutants exhibit a deficiency in cellulose, but are not reduced in pectin and sugars of the cell wall and cytosol. The sterol biosynthesis inhibitors 15-azasterol and fenpropimorph also cause cell wall gaps in dividing root cells and a reduction in bulk cellulose, corroborating that the cell wall abnormalities are due to altered sterol composition. Our results demonstrate that sterols are crucial for cellulose synthesis in the building of the plant cell wall.     

植物激素在植物细胞壁扩展中的作用

细胞壁不仅是植物细胞结构的重要组成部分,而且控制着细胞的大小、形状和生长。细胞经有丝分裂后,原生质体吸水膨胀,细胞壁重塑,新生壁物质合成,纤维素定向沉积等引发细胞壁生长。在这些过程中,乙烯（ethylene,ET）、生长素（auxin）、赤霉素（gibberellin,GA）、油菜素甾醇（brassinosteroids,BR）等植物激素调控细胞壁生长相关酶类如纤维素合酶复合体（cellulose synthase A,CESA）、扩展素（expansin,EXP）、木葡聚糖内糖基转移酶／水解酶（xyloglucan endotran glucosylase／hydrolase,XET／XTH）的表达活性,进而调控细胞壁扩展,促使细胞壁的生长。     

Cellulose synthesis in two secondary cell wall processes in a single cell type

Plant cells have a rigid cell wall that constrains internal turgor pressure yet extends in a regulated and organized manner to allow the cell to acquire shape. The primary load-bearing macromolecule of a plant cell wall is cellulose, which forms crystalline microfibrils that are organized with respect to a cell''s function and shape requirements. A primary cell wall is deposited during expansion whereas secondary cell wall is synthesized post expansion during differentiation. A complex form of asymmetrical cellular differentiation occurs in Arabidopsis seed coat epidermal cells, where we have recently shown that two secondary cell wall processes occur that utilize different cellulose synthase (CESA) proteins. One process is to produce pectinaceous mucilage that expands upon hydration and the other is a radial wall thickening that reinforced the epidermal cell structure. Our data illustrate polarized specialization of CESA5 in facilitating mucilage attachment to the parent seed and CESA2, CESA5 and CESA9 in radial cell wall thickening and formation of the columella. Herein, we present a model for the complexity of cellulose biosynthesis in this highly differentiated cell type with further evidence supporting each cellulosic secondary cell wall process.     

Self-assembly of plant cell walls

The object of this paper is to define criteria for distinguishing between self-assembly and template-based assembly in plant cell walls. The example of cellulose shows that cell wall polymers biosynthesized at a membrane may retain parallel chain packing arrangements that are thermodynamically unstable and cannot be reproduced in vitro, making the experimental testing of the self-assembly hypothesis difficult. Also, natural cellulose is ordered on a number of scales of pattern, each of which may be constructed by either self- or template-based assembly independently of the rest. These conceptual problems apply equally to the self-assembly of complete cell walls and other cell wall polymers. It is suggested that the self-assembly concept should be applied only to one stage or level in the synthesis of a cell wall, and that an additional concept of parallel assembly may be useful for understanding the synthesis of some polysaccharides.     

Targeting and Regulation of Cell Wall Synthesis During Tip Growth in Plants

Root hairs and pollen tubes are formed through tip growth, a process requiring synthesis of new cell wall material and the precise targeting and integration of these components to a selected apical plasma membrane domain in the growing tips of these cells. Presence of a tip-focused calcium gradient, control of actin cytoskeleton dynamics, and formation and targeting of secretory vesicles are essential to tip growth. Similar to cells undergoing diffuse growth, cellulose, hemicelluloses, and pectins are also deposited in the growing apices of tip-growing cells. However, differences in the manner in which these cell wall components are targeted and inserted in the expanding portion of tip-growing cells is reflected by the identification of elements of the plant cell wall synthesis machinery which have been shown to play unique roles in tip-growing cells. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the tip growth process, with a particular focus on the subcellular targeting of newly synthesized cell wall components, and their roles in this form of plant cell expansion.     

Real-Time Imaging of Cellulose Reorientation during Cell Wall Expansion in Arabidopsis Roots

Cellulose forms the major load-bearing network of the plant cell wall, which simultaneously protects the cell and directs its growth. Although the process of cellulose synthesis has been observed, little is known about the behavior of cellulose in the wall after synthesis. Using Pontamine Fast Scarlet 4B, a dye that fluoresces preferentially in the presence of cellulose and has excitation and emission wavelengths suitable for confocal microscopy, we imaged the architecture and dynamics of cellulose in the cell walls of expanding root cells. We found that cellulose exists in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) cell walls in large fibrillar bundles that vary in orientation. During anisotropic wall expansion in wild-type plants, we observed that these cellulose bundles rotate in a transverse to longitudinal direction. We also found that cellulose organization is significantly altered in mutants lacking either a cellulose synthase subunit or two xyloglucan xylosyltransferase isoforms. Our results support a model in which cellulose is deposited transversely to accommodate longitudinal cell expansion and reoriented during expansion to generate a cell wall that is fortified against strain from any direction.The walls of growing plant cells must fulfill two simultaneous and seemingly contradictory requirements. First, they must expand to accommodate cell growth, which is anisotropic in many tissues and determines organ morphology. Second, they must maintain their structural integrity, both to constrain the turgor pressure that drives cell growth and to provide structural rigidity to the plant. These requirements are met by constructing primary cell walls that can expand along with growing cells, whereas secondary cell walls are deposited after cell growth has ceased and serve the latter function.One of the major constituents of both types of cell walls is cellulose, which exists as microfibrils composed of parallel β-1,4-linked glucan chains that are held together laterally by hydrogen bonds (Somerville, 2006). Microfibrils are 2 to 5 nm in diameter, can extend to several micrometers in length, and exhibit high tensile strength that allows cell walls to withstand turgor pressures of up to 1 MPa (Franks, 2003). In vascular plants, cellulose is synthesized by a multimeric cellulose synthase (CESA) complex composed of at least three types of glycosyl transferases arranged into a hexameric rosette (Somerville, 2006). After delivery to the plasma membrane, CESA initially moves in alignment with cortical microtubules (Paredez et al., 2006), but its trajectory can be maintained independently of microtubule orientation. For example, in older epidermal cells of the root elongation zone in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), cellulose microfibrils at the inner wall face are oriented transversely despite the fact that microtubules reorient from transverse to longitudinal along the elongation zone (Sugimoto et al., 2000), suggesting that microtubule orientation and cellulose deposition are independent in at least some cases.Depending on species, cell type, and developmental stage, cellulose microfibrils may be surrounded by additional networks of polymers, including hemicelluloses, pectins, lignin, and arabinogalactan proteins (Somerville et al., 2004). Hemicelluloses are composed of β-1,4-linked carbohydrate backbones with side branches and include xyloglucans, mannans, and arabinoxylans. Xyloglucan is thought to interact with the surface of cellulose and form cross-links between adjacent microfibrils (Vissenberg et al., 2005). In some cell types, pectin or lignin may also participate in cross-linking or entrapment of other cell wall polymers. It is unclear how the associations between networks of different cell wall components are relaxed to allow for cell wall expansion during growth.Several models have been proposed for the behavior of cell wall components during wall expansion. The passive reorientation hypothesis (also called the multinet growth hypothesis; Preston, 1982) postulates that in longitudinally expanding cells, cellulose microfibrils are synthesized in a transverse pattern and are then reoriented toward the longitudinal axis due to the strain generated by turgor pressure (Green, 1960). This phenomenon has been observed in the multicellular alga Nitella (Taiz, 1984). In higher plants, there is less direct evidence for passive reorientation, and another hypothesis holds that wall expansion involves active, local, and controlled remodeling of cellulose microfibrils along a diversity of orientations (Baskin, 2005). Such remodeling could be achieved by proteins such as xyloglucan endotransglycosylases (XETs), which break and rejoin xyloglucan chains, and expansins, which loosen cell walls in vitro in a pH-dependent manner (Cosgrove, 2005). Marga et al. measured cellulose microfibril orientation at the innermost layer of the cell wall before and after in vitro extension and did not observe reorientation (Marga et al., 2005). This suggests that processes other than microfibril reorientation might be involved in wall expansion, at least under certain circumstances or in some wall layers. Thus, the degree to which cellulose microfibrils are reoriented after their synthesis during wall expansion has remained unclear.One difficulty in resolving this problem has been the inability to directly image cellulose microfibrils in the growing cell wall. Existing methods to assess cellulose structure and orientation in plant cell walls are limited by the low contrast of cellulose in transmission electron microscopy, the ability to image only the surface of the wall using field emission scanning electron microscopy, and the use of polarized light microscopy in combination with dyes such as Congo red to measure only the bulk orientation of cellulose microfibrils (Baskin et al., 1999; Sugimoto et al., 2000; Verbelen and Kerstens, 2000; MacKinnon et al., 2006). In addition, the sample manipulation required for the former two methods has the potential to introduce artifacts (Marga et al., 2005). Although cellulose microfibril orientation differs at the inner and outer surfaces of the cell wall (Sugimoto et al., 2000) and presumably changes over time, the dynamics of cellulose reorientation during cell wall expansion have not been observed to date.In this study, we tested fluorescent dyes for their potential to allow imaging of cellulose distribution in the walls of Arabidopsis seedlings by confocal microscopy. We used one of these dyes to characterize the distribution of cellulose in wild-type root cells and in mutants with reduced cellulose or xyloglucan. By directly observing the fine structure of cellulose over time in growing wild-type root cells, we concluded that cellulose microfibrils in these cells reorient in a transverse to longitudinal direction as predicted by the passive reorientation hypothesis.     

Temporal and spatial changes of cellulose synthesis inClosterium acerosum (Schrank) Ehrenberg during cell growth

The amount and distribution of wall microfibril synthesis were investigated in the cell-division cycle ofClosterium acerosum. Electron-microscopic examination and a methylation analysis of alkali-extracted wall fragments showed that alkali-extracted wall was mainly composed of microfibrils and that the microfibrils ofC. acerosum were 4-linked glucans, i.e., cellulose. Cellulose synthesis was measured as incorporation of¹⁴C, fed to cells as NaHCO₃, into extracted wall fragments. Extensive cellulose synthesis was coincident with septum formation, continued for more than 6 h and then ceased. It was found by microautoradiography that cellulose synthesis after cell division was essentially restricted to the expanding new semicells. Such a restricted distribution of cellulose synthesis was maintained for more than 6 h after septum formation, i.e., for more than 2 h after the cessation of expansion; afterwards, cellulose synthesis in some, but not all, cells became extended to the old semicells, and then ceased. Considerable cellulose synthesis also took place in the band-like expanding part of non-divided cells, indicating that cell division was not necessarily required for the induction of cellulose synthesis and the latter was coupled with cell expansion. Extension of cellulose synthesis to old semicells was brought about in divided cells by treatment with 3 mM colchicine, 28 M vinblastine, 50 M isopropyl-N-phenylcarbamate or 1 M isopropyl-N(3-chlorophenyl)carbamate, indicating that microtubules are involved in the limitation of cellulose synthesis to the new semicells.Abbreviations CIPC isopropyl-N(3-chlorophenyl)carbamate - DPO 2,5-diphenyloxazole - IPC isopropyl-N-phenylcarbamate     

Interaction between wall deposition and cell elongation in dark-grown hypocotyl cells in Arabidopsis

A central problem in plant biology is how cell expansion is coordinated with wall synthesis. We have studied growth and wall deposition in epidermal cells of dark-grown Arabidopsis hypocotyls. Cells elongated in a biphasic pattern, slowly first and rapidly thereafter. The growth acceleration was initiated at the hypocotyl base and propagated acropetally. Using transmission and scanning electron microscopy, we analyzed walls in slowly and rapidly growing cells in 4-d-old dark-grown seedlings. We observed thick walls in slowly growing cells and thin walls in rapidly growing cells, which indicates that the rate of cell wall synthesis was not coupled to the cell elongation rate. The thick walls showed a polylamellated architecture, whereas polysaccharides in thin walls were axially oriented. Interestingly, innermost cellulose microfibrils were transversely oriented in both slowly and rapidly growing cells. This suggested that transversely deposited microfibrils reoriented in deeper layers of the expanding wall. No growth acceleration, only slow growth, was observed in the cellulose synthase mutant cesA6(prc1-1) or in seedlings, which had been treated with the cellulose synthesis inhibitor isoxaben. In these seedlings, innermost microfibrils were transversely oriented and not randomized as has been reported for other cellulose-deficient mutants or following treatment with dichlorobenzonitrile. Interestingly, isoxaben treatment after the initiation of the growth acceleration in the hypocotyl did not affect subsequent cell elongation. Together, these results show that rapid cell elongation, which involves extensive remodeling of the cell wall polymer network, depends on normal cellulose deposition during the slow growth phase.     

Gibberellic acid promotes growth and cell wall synthesis in Avena internodes regardless of the orientation of cell expansion

Segments cut from the next-to-last (peduncular-1) internode of Avena sativa L. cv. Victory (oat) shoots elongate as much as 10-fold in response to gibberellic acid (GA₃). The objective of the present investigation was to differentiate the effects of GA₃ on growth from its effects on wall synthesis (measured gravimetrically and through the incorporation of [¹⁴C]-glucose) by using several cell wall synthesis inhibitors with widely varying mechanisms of action. Four compounds, viz. monensin, cycloheximide, lanthanum, and galactose. caused (1) relatively little inhibition of either cell wall synthesis or elongation in segments without GA₃, (2) roughly proportionate, dose-dependent inhibition of elongation and wall synthesis in GA₃-treated segments and (3) generally greater inhibition of GA₃-promoted uptake of radioactivity than of wall incorporation or elongation. Two other compounds, colchicine and 2,6-dichlorobenzonitrile (DCB). (1) inhibited GA₃-induced elongation considerably more than cell wall synthesis and (2) caused swelling (radial expansion). especially of GA₃-treated segments. DCB-treated internodal cells apparently compensated for inhibited cellulose synthesis by greater synthesis of matrix polysaccharide (beginning between 3 and 6 h). While normal cellulose synthesis was not required for short-term (up to 6 h) GA₃-induced elongation or for long-term hormone-promoted radial expansion, it was required for sustained GA₃-induced elongation. These results indicate that GA₃-promoted cell wall loosening (manifested as radial expansion) and cell wall synthesis in Avena internodes occur at least partially independently of any hormonal effect on the orientation of microtubules and microfibrils.     

COBRA, an Arabidopsis extracellular glycosyl-phosphatidyl inositol-anchored protein, specifically controls highly anisotropic expansion through its involvement in cellulose microfibril orientation

The orientation of cell expansion is a process at the heart of plant morphogenesis. Cellulose microfibrils are the primary anisotropic material in the cell wall and thus are likely to be the main determinant of the orientation of cell expansion. COBRA (COB) has been identified previously as a potential regulator of cellulose biogenesis. In this study, characterization of a null allele, cob-4, establishes the key role of COB in controlling anisotropic expansion in most developing organs. Quantitative polarized-light and field-emission scanning electron microscopy reveal that loss of anisotropic expansion in cob mutants is accompanied by disorganization of the orientation of cellulose microfibrils and subsequent reduction of crystalline cellulose. Analyses of the conditional cob-1 allele suggested that COB is primarily implicated in microfibril deposition during rapid elongation. Immunodetection analysis in elongating root cells revealed that, in agreement with its substitution by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor, COB was polarly targeted to both the plasma membrane and the longitudinal cell walls and was distributed in a banding pattern perpendicular to the longitudinal axis via a microtubule-dependent mechanism. Our observations suggest that COB, through its involvement in cellulose microfibril orientation, is an essential factor in highly anisotropic expansion during plant morphogenesis.     

Downregulation of the Petunia hybrida alpha-expansin gene PhEXP1 reduces the amount of crystalline cellulose in cell walls and leads to phenotypic changes in petal limbs

The expansins comprise a family of proteins that appear to be involved in the disruption of the noncovalent bonds between cellulose microfibrils and cross-linking glycans, thereby promoting wall creep. To understand better the expansion process in Petunia hybrida (petunia) flowers, we isolated a cDNA corresponding to the PhEXP1 alpha-expansin gene of P. hybrida. Evaluation of the tissue specificity and temporal expression pattern demonstrated that PhEXP1 is preferentially expressed in petal limbs during development. To determine the function of PhEXP1, we used a transgenic antisense approach, which was found to cause a decrease in petal limb size, a reduction in the epidermal cell area, and alterations in cell wall morphology and composition. The diminished cell wall thickness accompanied by a reduction in crystalline cellulose indicates that the activity of PhEXP1 is associated with cellulose metabolism. Our results suggest that expansins play a role in the assembly of the cell wall by affecting either cellulose synthesis or deposition.