Production of antimicrobial defensin in Nicotiana benthamiana with a potato virus X vector

A recombinant plasmid, pTXS.TH, was constructed to express the gene-encoding wasabi (Wasabia japonica) defensin with the potato virus X (PVX) vector. pTXS.TH allows the expression of defensin in the host Nicotiana benthamiana, and the defensin protein WT1 can be purified from virus-infected leaves by heat treatment and affinity chromatography. WT1 exhibits strong antifungal activity toward the phytopathogenic fungi Magnaporthe grisea (50% inhibitory concentration [IC50] = 5 microg/ml) and Botrytis cinerea (IC50 = 20 microg/ml) but is weakly active against the phytopathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas cichorii. This virus-mediated expression system is a rapid and efficient method to produce and characterize antimicrobial proteins in plants. It is particularly useful for the study of proteins that are difficult to produce with other expression systems.     

Expression of prune dwarf Ilarvirus coat protein sequences in Nicotiana benthamiana plants interferes with PDV systemic proliferation

Prune dwarf virus (PDV) is an Ilarvirus systemically infecting almond trees and other Prunus species and spreading through pollen, among other means. We have studied strategies based on coat protein (cp) gene to block PDV replication in host plant cells. A Portuguese isolate of PDV was obtained from infected almond leaves and used to produce the cDNA of the cp gene. Various constructs were prepared based on this sequence, aiming for the transgenic expression of the original or modified PDV coat protein (cpPDVSense and cpPDVMutated) or for the expression of cpPDV RNA (cpPDVAntisense and cpPDVwithout start codon). All constructs were tested in a PDV host model, Nicotiana benthamiana, and extensive molecular characterization and controlled infections were performed on transformants and their progenies. Transgenic plants expressing the coat protein RNA were able to block the proliferation of a PDV isolate sharing only 91% homology with the isolate used for cpPDV cloning, as evaluated by DAS-ELISA on newly developed leaves. With cp expression, the blockage of PDV proliferation in newly developed leaves was only achieved with the construct cpPDV Mutated, where the coat protein has a substitution in the 14th aa residue, with arginine replaced by alanine. This result points to a possible role of the mutated amino acid in the virus ability to replicate and proliferate. This work reveals the possibility of achieving protection against PDV through either coat protein RNA or mutated cp sequence.     

Production of an Engineered Killer Peptide in Nicotiana benthamiana by Using a Potato virus X Expression System

The decapeptide killer peptide (KP) derived from the sequence of a single-chain, anti-idiotypic antibody acting as a functional internal image of a microbicidal, broad-spectrum yeast killer toxin (KT) was shown to exert a strong microbicidal activity against human pathogens. With the aim to exploit this peptide to confer resistance to plant pathogens, we assayed its antimicrobial activity against a broad spectrum of phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi. Synthetic KP exhibited antimicrobial activity in vitro towards Pseudomonas syringae, Erwinia carotovora, Botrytis cinerea, and Fusarium oxysporum. KP was also expressed in plants by using a Potato virus X (PVX)-derived vector as a fusion to the viral coat protein, yielding chimeric virus particles (CVPs) displaying the heterologous peptide. Purified CVPs showed enhanced antimicrobial activity against the above-mentioned plant pathogens and human pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. Moreover, in vivo assays designed to challenge KP-expressing plants (as CVPs) with Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci showed enhanced resistance to bacterial attack. The results indicate that the PVX-based display system is a high-yield, rapid, and efficient method to produce and evaluate antimicrobial peptides in plants, representing a milestone for the large-scale production of high-added-value peptides through molecular farming. Moreover, KP is a promising molecule to be stably engineered in plants to confer broad-spectrum resistance to phytopathogens.     

Expression of active recombinant human gastric lipase in Nicotiana benthamiana using the CPMV-HT transient expression system

Recombinant human gastric lipase (hGL) was transiently expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves using the CPMV-HT expression system. Expression levels of up to 0.5mg recombinant hGL per gram of infiltrated leaf tissue were obtained. Proteins expressed from two hGL constructs, wild type (wt-hGL) and with a Histidine tag at its C terminal (hGL-His), were purified from leaf tissue using Immobilized Lectin Affinity chromatography and Immobilized Metal Affinity chromatography. Both variants were glycosylated, enzymatically active, and had an apparent molecular weight similar to native hGL (approx. 50kDa). The recombinant hGLs were stable under acidic conditions and in the presence of gastric pepsin. Moreover, as found with the naturally occurring enzyme, the activity of recombinant hGL on the short chain lipid, tributyrin, was higher than on long chain Intralipid 30% emulsion. The maximum specific activity measured on tributyrin was 310 U/mg of protein and the maximum yield was 193 U/g of infiltrated leaf tissue. These results show that transient expression in plants can be used to produce active hGL that could be efficiently purified using established techniques. The approach provides a means of generating large quantities of hGL that could be of use for a number of applications both in vitro and in vivo.     

Origin,Migration Routes and Worldwide Population Genetic Structure of the Wheat Yellow Rust Pathogen Puccinia striiformis f.sp. tritici

Analyses of large-scale population structure of pathogens enable the identification of migration patterns, diversity reservoirs or longevity of populations, the understanding of current evolutionary trajectories and the anticipation of future ones. This is particularly important for long-distance migrating fungal pathogens such as Puccinia striiformis f.sp. tritici (PST), capable of rapid spread to new regions and crop varieties. Although a range of recent PST invasions at continental scales are well documented, the worldwide population structure and the center of origin of the pathogen were still unknown. In this study, we used multilocus microsatellite genotyping to infer worldwide population structure of PST and the origin of new invasions based on 409 isolates representative of distribution of the fungus on six continents. Bayesian and multivariate clustering methods partitioned the set of multilocus genotypes into six distinct genetic groups associated with their geographical origin. Analyses of linkage disequilibrium and genotypic diversity indicated a strong regional heterogeneity in levels of recombination, with clear signatures of recombination in the Himalayan (Nepal and Pakistan) and near-Himalayan regions (China) and a predominant clonal population structure in other regions. The higher genotypic diversity, recombinant population structure and high sexual reproduction ability in the Himalayan and neighboring regions suggests this area as the putative center of origin of PST. We used clustering methods and approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) to compare different competing scenarios describing ancestral relationship among ancestral populations and more recently founded populations. Our analyses confirmed the Middle East-East Africa as the most likely source of newly spreading, high-temperature-adapted strains; Europe as the source of South American, North American and Australian populations; and Mediterranean-Central Asian populations as the origin of South African populations. Although most geographic populations are not markedly affected by recent dispersal events, this study emphasizes the influence of human activities on recent long-distance spread of the pathogen.     

Mitochondria-associated hexokinases play a role in the control of programmed cell death in Nicotiana benthamiana

Recent findings suggest a pivotal role for mitochondria-associated hexokinase in the regulation of apoptosis in animal cells. In this study, virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) of a hexokinase-encoding Hxk1 caused necrotic lesions on leaves, abnormal leaf morphology, and retarded plant growth in Nicotiana benthamiana. Hxk1 was associated with the mitochondria, and this association required the N-terminal membrane anchor. VIGS of Hxk1 reduced the cellular glucose-phosphorylating activity to approximately 31% of control levels without changing the fructose-phosphorylating activity and did not alter hexose phosphate content severely. The affected cells showed programmed cell death (PCD) morphological markers, including nuclear condensation and DNA fragmentation. Similar to animal cell apoptosis, cytochrome c was released into the cytosol and caspase-9- and caspase-3-like proteolytic activities were strongly induced. Furthermore, based on flow cytometry, Arabidopsis thaliana plants overexpressing Arabidopsis HXK1 and HXK2, both of which are predominantly associated with mitochondria, exhibited enhanced resistance to H(2)O(2)- and alpha-picolinic acid-induced PCD. Finally, the addition of recombinant Hxk1 to mitochondria-enriched fractions prevented H(2)O(2)/clotrimazole-induced cytochrome c release and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Together, these results show that hexokinase critically regulates the execution of PCD in plant cells, suggesting a link between glucose metabolism and apoptosis.     

A Light and Electron Microscope Study of the Interaction of Yellow Rust (Puccinia striiformis) with a Susceptible Wheat Cultivar

The microscopy and ultrastructure of the interaction of Pucciniastriiformis with a susceptible wheat cultivar was examined atintervals from the time of first haustorium formation to theonset of sporulation. At any particular point in the radiallyexpanding area of infection a sequence of morphological changesoccurred in the infected host cells and the fungus which werecorrelated with successive phases of active fungal growth, accumulationof reserves and finally export of reserves to the developingreproductive structures. The observations are compared withprevious work on other host-rust interactions. yellow rust, Puccinia striiformis, wheat, host-pathogen interaction     

大麦黄花叶病相关基因WRKY55的克隆及功能研究

大麦黄花叶病是我国长江中下游地区大麦种植区域的主要病毒病害,由大麦黄花叶病毒(BaYMV,Barley yellow mosaic virus)及大麦和性花叶病毒(BaMMV,Barley mild mosaic virus)引起,自然条件下病毒寄生于禾谷多黏菌中,通过感染大麦根部导致病害发生。本研究通过分析RNA-seq数据,获得感染BaMMV后上调表达的基因HORVU1Hr1G069640(WRKY55)。荧光定量PCR分析发现WRKY55在感病品种中的表达水平极显著高于抗病材料,说明WRKY55参与到大麦感染黄花叶病的过程。WRKY55全长870 bp,在415～594位核苷酸之间含有WRKY保守结构域,系统进化分析显示该基因位于独立的进化分枝。组织表达分析发现该基因主要在根部和幼嫩组织中表达,而其他成熟部位表达较少甚至没有。农杆菌介导的烟草亚细胞定位实验发现WRKY55位于整个细胞。酵母转录因子活性分析实验未检测到转录激活活性,酵母双杂交实验未检测到WRKY55与感病基因编码蛋白eIF4E和PDIL5-1存在物理相互作用。这些结果显示WRKY55参与到大麦黄花叶病感染。     

A Strategy to Identify Probes that Detect a High Degree of Polymorphism in Bread Wheat

Although the genetic linkage map of Triticum tauschil, the D-genome progenitor of wheat its available, its use for linkage analysis of hexaploid wheat chromosome regions is hampered by the lack of polymorphism in wheat. Here we describe a strategy to identity probes that detect a high degree of polymorphism in wheat. The strategy involves the use of DNA probes that detect null alleles. About 16% of the Pstl genomic clones from Triticum tauschil detect null alleles in the species. The probes that detect null alleles reveal high degree of polymorphism among hexaploid wheat cultivars. The probes selected following this strategy are expected to detect null alleles throughout the tribe Triticeae, therefore, reveal high degree of polymorphism.     

A variant of the satellite RNA of groundnut rosette virus that induces brilliant yellow blotch mosaic symptoms in Nicotiana benthamiana

Some Malawian cultures of groundnut rosette virus (GRV) give rise to variants that, although still causing symptoms of the chlorotic type of rosette in groundnut, induce brilliant yellow blotch mosaic symptoms, instead of the usual veinal chlorosis and mild mottle, in Nicotiana benthamiana. One such isolate (YB) induced the formation in infected plants of a 0.9 kbp dsRNA having extensive sequence homology with molecules of similar size in other naturally occurring isolates of GRV. These dsRNA molecules were shown to be double-stranded forms of single-stranded satellite RNA molecules. Experiments in which the satellite was removed from and restored to isolate YB, or exchanged with those from other GRV isolates, showed that it carries the determinant for yellow blotch mosaic symptoms. Plants inoculated with the 0.9 kbp dsRNA (denatured or undenatured) developed yellow blotch mosaic even when the satellite-free GRV helper was not inoculated until 11 days later. The satellite RNA is therefore a very stable molecule. Prior infection of N. benthamiana with a GRV isolate containing a normal form of the satellite protected against expression of yellow blotch mosaic symptoms when the plants were later inoculated with isolate YB, whereas prior infection with satellite-free isolates did not. This provides a simple method of determining whether a GRV isolate has an associated satellite RNA. The YB satellite seems to be a newly recognised variant additional to those known to cause the chlorotic, green and other forms of groundnut rosette disease.     

TaAbc1, a Member of Abc1-Like Family Involved in Hypersensitive Response against the Stripe Rust Fungal Pathogen in Wheat

To search for genes involved in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) defense response to the infection of stripe rust pathogen Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), we identified and cloned a new wheat gene similar to the genes in the Abc1-like gene family. The new gene, designated as TaAbc1, encodes a 717-amino acid, 80.35 kD protein. The TaAbc1 protein contains two conserved domains shared by Abc1-like proteins, two trans-membrane domains at the C-terminal, and a 36-amino acid chloroplast targeting presequence at the N-terminal. Characterization of TaAbc1 expression revealed that gene expression was tissue-specific and could be up-regulated by biotic agents (e.g., stripe rust pathogen) and/or by an abiotic stress like wounding. High-fold induction was associated with the hypersensitive response (HR) triggered only by avirulent stripe rust pathotypes, suggesting that TaAbc1 is a rust-pathotype specific HR-mediator. Down-regulating TaAbc1 reduced HR but not the overall resistance level in Suwon11 to CYR23, suggesting TaAbc1 was involved in HR against stripe rust, but overall host resistance is not HR-dependent.     

Recognition of a salivary effector by the TNL protein RCSP promotes effector-triggered immunity and systemic resistance in Nicotiana benthamiana

Insects secret chemosensory proteins(CSPs)into plant cells as potential effector proteins during feeding. The molecular mechanisms underlying how CSPs activate plant immunity remain largely unknown. We show that CSPs from six distinct insect orders induce dwarfism when overexpressed in Nicotiana benthamiana.Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression of Nilaparvata lugens CSP11(NlCSP11) triggered cell death and plant dwarfism, both of which were dependent on ENHANCED DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY 1(EDS1), N requirement gene1(NRG1) and SENESCENCE-ASSOCIATED GENE 101(SAG101), indicating the activation of effector-triggered immunity(ETI) in N. benthamiana. Overexpression of NlCSP11 led to stronger systemic resistance against Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 lacking effector HopQ1-1 and tobacco mosaic virus, and induced higher accumulation of salicylic acid(SA)in uninfiltrated leaves compared to another effector XopQ that is recognized by a Tollinterleukin-1 receptor(TIR) domain nucleotidebinding leucine-rich repeat receptor(TNL)called ROQ1 in N. benthamiana. Consistently,NlCSP11-induced dwarfism and systemic resistance, but not cell death, were abolished in N. benthamiana transgenic line expressing the SA-degrading enzyme Nah G. Through large-scale virus-induced gene silencing screening, we identified a TNL protein that mediates the recognition of CSPs(RCSP), including aphid effector MP10 that triggers resistance against aphids in N. benthamiana. Coimmunoprecipitation, bimolecular fluorescence complementation and Alpha Fold2 prediction unveiled an interaction between NlCSP11 and RCSP. Interestingly, RCSP does not contain the conserved catalytic glutamic acid in the TIR domain, which is required for TNL function. Our findings point to enhanced ETI and systemic resistance by a TNL protein via hyperactivation of the SA pathway. Moreover, RCSP is the first TNL identified to recognize an insect effector.     

Expression of a recombinant Human papillomavirus 16 E6GT oncoprotein fused to N- and C-termini of Potato virus X coat protein in Nicotiana benthamiana

Infection with Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) is linked to cervical cancer, which is one of the most common cancers found among women worldwide. Despite preventive immunization, a therapeutic vaccine, targeting infected individuals, is required. Vaccine strategies for treatment of HPV—induced cervical cancer are based on E7 and E6 oncoproteins. In this work we report the transient expression of chimeric particles containing the E6 oncoprotein from Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) in plants. We fused a mutagenized coding sequence of the E6 oncoprotein (E6GT) with the coding sequence of Potato virus X coat protein (PVX CP) both with the 5′- and 3′-terminus using linkers of different length (0, 4 or 15 amino acids). The expression in E. coli was performed to assess the characteristics of the recombinant protein prior to plant expression. The yield and immunological reactivity of the expressed proteins were screened with anti-PVX CP and E6 antibodies. The highest yields of chimeric particles were observed in the transgenic N. benthamiana expressing Potato virus A HC-Pro protein and the Tobacco mosaic virus movement protein. When inoculated on host plants, these recombinant viruses were not able to spread systemically. The obtained results revealed the new relations for design of expression cassettes for plant-based vaccine production.     

Advanced Engineering of Lipid Metabolism in Nicotiana benthamiana Using a Draft Genome and the V2 Viral Silencing-Suppressor Protein

The transient leaf assay in Nicotiana benthamiana is widely used in plant sciences, with one application being the rapid assembly of complex multigene pathways that produce new fatty acid profiles. This rapid and facile assay would be further improved if it were possible to simultaneously overexpress transgenes while accurately silencing endogenes. Here, we report a draft genome resource for N. benthamiana spanning over 75% of the 3.1 Gb haploid genome. This resource revealed a two-member NbFAD2 family, NbFAD2.1 and NbFAD2.2, and quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) confirmed their expression in leaves. FAD2 activities were silenced using hairpin RNAi as monitored by qRT-PCR and biochemical assays. Silencing of endogenous FAD2 activities was combined with overexpression of transgenes via the use of the alternative viral silencing-suppressor protein, V2, from Tomato yellow leaf curl virus. We show that V2 permits maximal overexpression of transgenes but, crucially, also allows hairpin RNAi to operate unimpeded. To illustrate the efficacy of the V2-based leaf assay system, endogenous lipids were shunted from the desaturation of 18∶1 to elongation reactions beginning with 18∶1 as substrate. These V2-based leaf assays produced ∼50% more elongated fatty acid products than p19-based assays. Analyses of small RNA populations generated from hairpin RNAi against NbFAD2 confirm that the siRNA population is dominated by 21 and 22 nt species derived from the hairpin. Collectively, these new tools expand the range of uses and possibilities for metabolic engineering in transient leaf assays.     

Expression of a metacaspase gene of Nicotiana benthamiana after inoculation with Colletotrichum destructivum or Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, and the effect of silencing the gene on the host response

Metacaspases are cysteine proteinases that have homology to caspases, which play a central role in signaling and executing programmed cell death in animals. A type II metacaspase cDNA, NbMCA1, was amplified from Nicotiana benthamiana infected with Colletotrichum destructivum. It showed a peak in expression at 72 h post-inoculation corresponding with the switch to necrotrophy by C. destructivum. Inoculation of N. benthamiana with an incompatible bacterium, Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, which should induce a non-host hypersensitive response (HR), did not result in an increase in NbMCA1 expression at the time of necrosis development at 20–24 h postinoculation. Virus-induced silencing of NbMCA1 resulted in three to four times more lesions due to C. destructivum compared with leaves inoculated with the PVX vector without the cloned metacaspase gene or inoculated with water only. However, virus-induced silencing of NbMCA1 did not affect the HR necrosis or population levels of P. syringae pv. tomato. Although this metacaspase gene does not appear to be involved in the programmed cell death of non-host HR resistance to P. syringae, it does affect the susceptibility of N. benthamiana to C. destructivum indicating a function in a basal defense response. Possible roles of NbMCA1could be in degrading virulence factors of the pathogen, processing pro-proteins involved in stress responses, eliminating damaged proteins created during stress, and/or degrading proteins to remobilize amino acids to fuel de novo synthesis of proteins involved in stress adaptations.     

Some Effects of General Yellow Rust (Puccinia striiformis) Infection on 14Carbon Assimilation, Translocation and Growth in a Spring Wheat

A general, heavy infection of Yellow Rust(Puccinia StriiformisWestend.) on the leaf laminas of the spring wheat (Triticumvulgare Host) Jufy I, unlike an infection on one leaf only,modified the distribution pattern of ¹⁴C-labelled assimilatetranslocated from the second leaf: the proportion moving tothe roots (in older plants also to the tillers) was decreased,and that moving to the leaves was increased. The proportionof the assimilate translocated out of an infected leaf of asuch plant was, however more than that observed when that leafwas the only one infected, though still less than that froma corresponding leaf in a healthy plant. Age of leaf did notgreatly affect the distribution pattern. The effect of infection on the distribution pattern of assimilatefrom other leaves 15 days after inoculation was comparable tothe effect on that from the second leaf at the same intervalafter inoculation. In the case of the upper leaves the proportionmoving to the tillers was appreciably reduced by infection.These results are considered in relation to data obtained froma parellel growth analysis experiment, with which they are ingood agreement.     

Downregulation of the NbNACa1 gene encoding a movement-protein-interacting protein reduces cell-to-cell movement of Brome mosaic virus in Nicotiana benthamiana

The 3a movement protein (MP) plays a central role in the movement of the RNA plant virus, Brome mosaic virus (BMV). To identify host factor genes involved in viral movement, a cDNA library of Nicotiana benthamiana, a systemic host for BMV, was screened with far-Western blotting using a recombinant BMV MP as probe. One positive clone encoded a protein with sequence similarity to the alpha chain of nascent-polypeptide-associated complex from various organisms, which is proposed to contribute to the fidelity of translocation of newly synthesized proteins. The orthologous gene from N. benthamiana was designated NbNACa1. The binding of NbNACa1 to BMV MP was confirmed in vivo with an agroinfiltration-immunoprecipitation assay. To investigate the involvement of NbNACa1 in BMV multiplication, NbNACa1-silenced (GSNAC) transgenic N. benthamiana plants were produced. Downregulation of NbNACa1 expression reduced virus accumulation in inoculated leaves but not in protoplasts. A microprojectile bombardment assay to monitor BMV-MP-assisted viral movement demonstrated reduced virus spread in GSNAC plants. The localization to the cell wall of BMV MP fused to green fluorescent protein was delayed in GSNAC plants. From these results, we propose that NbNACa1 is involved in BMV cell-to-cell movement through the regulation of BMV MP localization to the plasmodesmata.