Spin-trapping of the trichloromethyl radical produced during enzymic NADPH oxidation in the presence of carbon tetrachloride or bromotrichloromethane.

Utilizing the spin-trapping agent phenyl-t-butyl nitrone, a free radical has been detected which is produced from carbon tetrachloride or bromotrichloromethane during the enzymic oxidation of NADPH by rat liver microsomes. The presence of NADPH is obligatory for generation of the radical. The formation of the trichloromethyl radical-phenyl-t-butyl nitrone adduct is an enzymic process, as evidenced by the inhibition of its formation in systems containing heated microsomes and in systems containing p-hydroxymercuribenzoate. A computer-simulated ESR spectrum for the trichloromethyl adduct of phenyl-t-butyl nitrone can reproduce the essential features of the spectrum of the spin-trapped radical produced enzymically from CCl4. A mechanism is proposed for the formation of the trichloromethyl radical from CCl4 or BrCCl3.     

Characterization of the free radical formed in aerobic microsomal incubations containing carbon tetrachloride and NADPH.

Aerobic microsomal incubations containing either lipoxygenase or carbon tetrachloride and NADPH apparently produce the same free radical, as determined by spin trapping. The spectrum of the radical trapped in the presence of CCl₄ and NADPH is consistent with a carbon-centered dienyl lipid radical adduct. This species had previously been identified as the trichloromethyl radical adduct.     

Oxidation of carbon tetrachloride,bromotrichloromethane, and carbon tetrabromide by rat liver microsomes to electrophilic halogens

In order to determine whether CCl₄, CBrCl₃, CBr₄ or CHCl₃ undergo oxidative metabolism to electrophilic halogens by liver microsomes, they were incubated with liver microsomes from phenobartital pretreated rats in the presence of NADPH and 2,6-dimethylphenol. The analysis of the reaction mixtures by capillary gas chromatography mass spectrometry revealed that 4-chloro-2,6-dimethylphenol was a metabolite of CCl₄ and CBrCl₃ whereas 4-bromo-2,6-dimethylphenol was a metabolite of CBr₄. The formation of the metabolites was significantly decreased when the reactions were conducted with heat denatured microsomes, in the absence of NADPH or under an atmosphere of N₂. These results indicate that the chlorines of CBrCl₃ and CCl₄ and the bromines of CBr₄ are oxidatively metabolized by rat liver microsomes to electrophilic and potentially toxic metabolites.     

Bioactivation of carbon tetrachloride, chloroform and bromotrichloromethane: role of cytochrome P-450.

In order to define the site of bioactivation of CCl₄, CHCl₃ and CBrCl₃ in the NADPH cytochrome $\text{c}$ reductase-cytochrome P-450 coupled systems of liver microsomes, the ¹⁴C-labeled hepatotoxins were incubated $\text{in}$$\text{vitro}$ with isolated rat liver microsomes and a NADPH-generating system. The covalent binding of radiolabel to microsomal protein was used as a measure of the conversion of the hepatotoxins to reactive intermediates. Omission of NADPH, incubation under CO:O₂ (8:2) and addition of a cytochrome $\text{c}$ reductase specific antisera mardedly reduced the covalent binding of all three compounds. When cytochrome P-450 was reduced to less than 25% of normal by pretreatment of rats with allylisopropylacetamide (AIA), but cytochrome $\text{c}$ reductase activity was unchanged, the covalent binding of CCl₄, CHCl₃, and CBrCl₃ was decreased by 63, 83, 70%, respectively. Incubation under an atmosphere of N₂ enhanced the binding of CCl₄, inhibited the binding of CHCl₃ and did not influence the binding of CBrCl₃. It is concluded that cytochrome P-450 is the site of bioactivation of these three compounds rather than NADPH cytochrome $\text{c}$ reductase and that CCl₄ bioactivation proceeds by cytochrome P-450 dependent reductive pathways, while CHCl₃ activation proceeds by cytochrome P-450 dependent oxidative pathways.     

Confirmation of assignment of the trichloromethyl radical spin adduct detected by spin trapping during 13C-carbon tetrachloride metabolism in vitro and in vivo

Rat liver microsomal incubation systems containing the free radical spin trap, phenyl-t-butyl nitrone, as well as an NADPH generating system and [¹³C]CCl₄ (90 atom % ¹³C) produce electron spin resonance spectra consistent with that expected for a trichloromethyl-phenyl-t-butyl nitrone adduct. This same spectrum is observed in a lipid extract of the liver from a rat orally administered [¹³C]CCl₄ as well as in a solution of phenyl-t-butyl nitrone and [¹³C]CCl₄ irradiated with ultraviolet light.     

Chromium (III) decreases carbon tetrachloride-originated trichloromethyl radical in mice.

Effects of the administration of trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) to mice and the activation of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) to form trichloromethyl radicals (.CCl3) in the liver were studied. The lipid peroxidation in liver microsomes induced in vitro by CCl4 in the presence of NADPH was decreased by the preadministration of Cr(III) to mice. The activity of NADPH-cytochrome C reductase, which presumably catalyzes the formation of .CCl3 from CCl4 in liver microsomes, was depressed by Cr(III) administration and kept at a level lower than that of the control group for at least 2 hr after CCl4 dosing. Furthermore, the frequency of appearances of ESR signals of .CCl3 in the liver homogenate of mice 1 min after CCl4 administration was markedly decreased by Cr(III) preadministration, similarly to DL-alpha-tocopherol. These results suggest that Cr(III) preadministered to mice decreases the formation of .CCl3 from CCl4, an activating process of CCl4, in the liver, presumably by scavenging the radical.     

The enzymic oxidation of chlorogenic acid and some reactions of the quinone produced

1. Partially purified preparations of tobacco-leaf o-diphenol oxidase (o-quinol-oxygen oxidoreductase; EC 1.10.3.1) oxidize chlorogenic acid to brown products, absorbing, on average, 1.6atoms of oxygen/mol. oxidized, and evolving a little carbon dioxide. 2. The effect of benzenesulphinic acid on the oxidation suggests that the first stage is the formation of a quinone; the solution does not go brown, oxygen uptake is restricted to 1 atom/mol. oxidized, and a compound is produced whose composition corresponds to that of a sulphone of the quinone derived from chlorogenic acid. 3. Several other compounds that react with quinones affect the oxidation of chlorogenic acid. The colour of the products formed and the oxygen absorbed in their formation suggest that the quinone formed in the oxidation reacts with these compounds in the same way as do simpler quinones. 4. Some compounds that are often used to prevent the oxidation of polyphenols were tested to see if they act by inhibiting o-diphenol oxidase, by reacting with quinone intermediates, or both. 5. Ascorbate inhibits the enzyme and also reduces the quinone. 6. Potassium ethyl xanthate, diethyldithiocarbamate and cysteine inhibit the enzyme to different extents, and also react with the quinone. The nature of the reaction depends on the relative concentrations of inhibitor and chlorogenic acid. Excess of inhibitor prevents the solution from turning brown and restricts oxygen uptake to 1 atom/mol. of chlorogenic acid oxidized; smaller amounts do not prevent browning and slightly increase oxygen uptake. 7. 2-Mercaptobenzothiazole inhibits the enzyme, and also probably reacts with the quinone; inhibited enzyme is reactivated as if the inhibitor is removed as traces of quinone are produced. 8. Thioglycollate and polyvinylpyrrolidone inhibit the enzyme. Thioglycollate probably reduces the quinone to a small extent.     

Spin-trapping of methyl radical in the oxidative metabolism of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine

A carbon-centered free radical formed during oxidative metabolism of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine has been spin-trapped with alpha-(4-pyridyl-1-oxide)N-tert-butyl nitrone and 2-methyl-2-nitrosopropane. In the horseradish peroxidase/H2O2 catalyzed oxidation, the trapped species was identified as the methyl radical by the characteristic 1:3:3:1 quartet pattern of the 2-methyl-2-nitroso propane adduct. A carbon-centered radical is also formed during microsomal oxidation of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine in the presence of NADPH. However, the alpha-(4-pyridyl-1-oxide)N-tert-butyl nitrone trapped radical has not been unambiguously identified in this latter instance. These results may be of importance in regard to both carcinogenic and antitumor properties of 1,2-disubstituted hydrazine derivatives.     

Regional brain GABA metabolism and release during hepatic coma produced in rats chronically treated with carbon tetrachloride

Hepatic coma was induced in rats chronically treated with CCl₄, by means of a single injection of ammonium acetate. The activities of glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) and GABA transaminase (GABA-T), as well as the synaptosomal uptake and release of [³H]GABA, were measured in the following brain areas of the comatose rats: cortex, striatum, hypothalamus, hippocampus, midbrain and cerebellum. Hepatic coma was associated with a general decrease of GAD activity, whereas GABA-T activity was diminished only in the hypothalamus, striatum and midbrain. During hepatic coma, the K⁺-stimulated [³H]GABA release was notably diminished in the striatum and cerebellum, whereas a significant increase was observed in the hippocampus. [³H]GABA uptake increased in most regions after CCl₄ treatment, independently of the presence of coma. The results indicate that GABAergic transmission seems to be decreased in most cerebral regions during hepatic coma.     

Distribution of taurine-like immunoreactivity in the mouse liver during ontogeny and after carbon tetrachloride or phenobarbital intoxication

Summary The ontogenic pattern of development of taurine-like immunoreactivity (TLI) was studied in the mouse liver. The effect on adult mice of carbon tetrachloride or phenobarbital treatment was also examined. Light-microscopically, granules of TLI were first found in the liver from 17-day-old embryos, diffusely distributed throughout the lobules. These positive granules increased with age, were most numerous in the two-week-old mouse, and were notably decreased in the central region of some lobules in the three-week-old mouse. In mature mice, hepatocytes containing TLI-positive granules were distributed unevenly in each liver lobule, and were located predominantly in the peripheral region. Electron-microscopically, TLI was observed in small vesicles in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes and was found mainly in the cisternal lumen of smooth-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum. Some taurine-positive vesicles surrounding the reticulum seemed to associate with the protoplasm. Similar positive vesicles were often located near the bile canaliculi. In carbon tetrachloride-intoxicated mature mice, TLI was no longer limited to the peripheral region of lobules; hepatocytes situated in the central region of lobules also contained intense TLI. In mice injected with a small and repeated dose of phenobarbital, the distribution pattern of TLI was similar to that in the untreated group. However, in mice injected with a large dose of phenobarbital, TLI was markedly increased, especially in the central region of lobules. The results demonstrate that the distribution pattern of TLI in mouse liver changes during development, and that the pattern in mature mice is affected by intoxication with carbon tetrachloride or a toxic dose of phenobarbital.     

Spin-trapping studies of hydroxyl radical production involved in lipid peroxidation.

Evidence presented in this report suggests that the hydroxyl radical (OH.), which is generated from liver microsomes is an initiator of NADPH-dependent lipid peroxidation. The conclusions are based on the following observations: 1) hydroxyl radical production in liver microsomes as measured by esr spin-trapping correlates with the extent of NADPH induced microsomal lipid peroxidation as measured by malondialdehyde formation; 2) peroxidative degradation of arachidonic acid in a model OH · generating system, namely, the Fenton reaction takes place readily and is inhibited by thiourea, a potent OH · scavenger, indicating that the hydroxyl radical is capable of initiating lipid peroxidation; 3) trapping of the hydroxyl radical by the spin trap, 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-1-oxide prevents lipid peroxidation in liver microsomes during NADPH oxidation, and in the model system in the presence of linolenic acid. The possibility that cytochrome P-450 reductase is involved in NADPH-dependent lipid peroxidation is discussed. The optimal pH for the production of the hydroxyl radical in liver microsomes is 7.2. The generation of the hydroxyl radical is correlated with the amount of microsomal protein, possibly NADPH cytochrome P-450 reductase. A critical concentration of EDTA (5 × 10^?5m) is required for maximal production of the hydroxyl radical in microsomal lipid peroxidation during NADPH oxidation. High concentrations of Fe²⁺-EDTA complex equimolar in iron and chelator do not inhibit the production of the hydroxyl radical. The production of the hydroxyl radical in liver microsomes is also promoted by high salt concentrations. Evidence is also presented that OH radical production in microsomes during induced lipid peroxidation occurs primarily via the classic Fenton reaction.     

An electron spin resonance study of the novel radical cation produced during the horseradish peroxidase-catalyzed oxidation of tetramethylhydrazine

Thrombin stimulation of [³²P]-prelabeled platelets induces a rapid decrease of the radioactivity from phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate. No significant change is observed in phosphatidylinositol-4-monophosphate. The initial, thrombin-induced decrease of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate is not inhibited by cytochalasin D or by compounds that interfere with the mobilization of Ca²⁺ such as 8-(diethylamino)-octyl-3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoate, the calmodulin-antagonist, trifluoperazine, prostacyclin and cyclic AMP. Our information indicates that the rapid loss of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate is linked to receptor activation and insensitive to Ca²⁺-mobilization.     

Free radical mechanism of oxidation of uroporphyrinogen in the presence of ferrous iron

Human porphyria cutanea tarda is an unusual consequence of common hepatic disorders such as alcoholic liver disease. Hepatic iron plays a key role in the expression of the metabolic lesions, i.e., defective hepatic decarboxylation of porphyrinogens, catalyzed by uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase. This prompted the present study to determine the in vitro effects of iron on the uroporphyrinogen substrate in the absence and presence of atmospheric oxygen. We observed that (i) unless oxygen is the limiting reactant, autoxidation of ferrous iron and iron-catalyzed oxidation of uroporphyrinogen occurred soon after initiating the reaction at pH 7.4 and 30 degrees C in buffers which are non- or poor chelators of iron; (ii) the rates of uroporphyrinogen oxidation were proportional to the initial concentration of ferrous ion; (iii) about 70% of the oxidations of uroporphyrinogen were accountable due to a free-radical chain reaction pathway involving superoxide radical and hence inhibitable by superoxide dismutase; (iv) uroporphyrinogen could be further oxidized to completion by the hydroxyl radical since the reaction was partially inhibited by both mannitol and catalase which prevent hydroxyl radical production; (v) the oxidizing effects of ferric ion on uroporphyrinogen were none or negligible as compared to those of ferrous ion. Ferric was reduced to ferrous ion in the presence of dithiothreitol. When the ferrous ion thus formed was reoxidized in the presence of atmospheric oxygen, minor but definite oxidations of both uroporphyrinogen and dithiothreitol were observed. The oxidations of Fe2+ and uroporphyrinogen could be blocked by 1,10-phenanthroline, a ferrous iron chelator. The data suggest that ferrous is the reactive form of iron that may contribute to pathogenic development of the disease by irreversibly oxidizing the porphyrinogen substrates to nonmetabolizable porphyrins, which accumulate in porphyric liver.     

Oxygen- and carbon-centered free radical formation during carbon tetrachloride metabolism. Observation of lipid radicals in vivo and in vitro

Free radical reactions involved in the metabolism of carbon tetrachloride by rat liver have been considered to be a cause of at least part of the injury resulting from exposure to this halocarbon. In an earlier study employing electron spin resonance and spin-trapping techniques, we demonstrated that trichloromethyl (13.CCl3) radicals are readily observed in rat liver microsomes metabolizing 13CCl4, and that the same radical could be shown to form in vivo in the liver of intact rats given a single dose of 13CCl4. This report describes the production of lipid dienyl (L.) and oxygen-centered lipid radicals (LO. or LOO., or both) in in vitro systems metabolizing 13CCl4, and also the formation of lipid dienyl radicals (L.) in liver of intact animals exposed to CCl4. The radicals appear to be produced in a sequence of reactions governed among other things by the oxygen tension in the system. The lipid radicals (L.) which form in intact liver of CCl4-treated rats are apparently the result of an attack on lipids of the endoplasmic reticulum by 13.CCl3 radicals formed by reductive cleavage to CCl4 and are the initial intermediates in the process of lipid peroxidation. These investigations demonstrate that while the events occurring in liver microsomes in vitro appear to parallel those which take place in intact liver in vivo, the conditions in vivo make the spin-trapping studies of radicals in intact animals much more selective than it is in vitro for a given spin trap, and requires the use of more than one type of spin-trapping agent to detect different radical species in vivo.