Anomalous coloration in European pine marten Martes martes in Elba Island,Central Italy

Evidence of abnormal coloration in wild animals provides useful information to better understand its adaptive function and its impact on survival. For this reason, we need to know the frequency and distribution of these abnormal phenotypes in wild populations. Here, we report two records of hypopigmentation in European pine marten Martes martes, obtained during a camera‐trapping survey on Elba Island, Central Italy. We do not know what has caused anomalous coloration of pine marten on Elba Island, but it is possible that the inbreeding may have played a role in this isolated population. Although the light coloration certainly entails an increased visibility of pine martens, it is possible that the low predator pressure and the absence of other wild carnivore populations in our study could mitigate the mortality risk due to the light phenotype. The increased use of camera traps across the world can potentially facilitate the discovery of cases of anomalous colorations in wild populations, providing an unprecedented insight into the occurrence of this phenomenon in wild mammal species.     

Stress physiological responses to tourist pressure in a wild population of European pine marten

The tourist pressure in natural parks is a potential source of stress and may cause an increase in the adrenal activity of wild populations of European pine marten (Martes martes). Seventy-six faecal samples were collected during 15 months in a natural park of Northwest Spain. Analysis of faecal DNA was used for the specific identification using the PCR-RFLPs technique. Faecal steroid determinations were performed by EIA. Natural park was divided in three areas: free entry, restricted area, and integral reservation, and number of daily human visitors recorded. Faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels (ng/g dry faeces) were significantly higher in spring (56.36 ± 19.62) and summer (31.27 ± 11.98) compared to autumn (15.33 ± 6.89) and winter (11.13 ± 3.30). These data are closely related to daily number of visitors (spring: 3204, summer: 1672, winter: 646, autumn: 551). Androgen, progestin and oestrogen levels were also significantly higher in spring (reproductive season) showing values of 43.62 ± 18.6, 154.31 ± 53.50 and 829.62 ± 456.1, respectively. Glucocorticoid levels were significantly lower in integral reservation (15.95 ± 3.56) compared to restricted (31.4 ± 16.30) and free entry areas (41.59 ± 12.73), respectively. Wild populations of European pine marten showed stress physiological response induced by the tourist pressure and this response is higher during reproductive season.     

Habitat selection of European pine marten in Central Italy: from a tree dependent to a generalist species

Studies at small spatial scale are often fundamental to highlight the behavioural plasticity of a species and thus have important implications for conservation planning, in particular for species usually considered as habitat specialists. We investigated second-order habitat selection of the European pine marten in an area dominated by deciduous oak forest and open fields in central Italy, by radio-tracking 16 pine martens (eight males, eight females). Pine martens placed home ranges in areas with more open field than in the study area, whereas woodland (oak and conifer forests) comprised a smaller portion of the home range than predominant forest character of the studied area. Although the presence of the species in the open habitats has been documented, to our knowledge, our results provide the first evidence of home range establishment in this cover type by pine marten at population level. The combination of low predation risk and high availability of resources could allow pine martens to occupy open fields in our study area. We highlighted different individual strategies of habitat selection, with some individuals placing home ranges in areas with high forest coverage while others occupying open areas. We found no effects of sex and body condition on habitat selection, and this could indicate that in the study area, both forested and non-forested cover types, such as open fields, shrub and anthropic areas, can provide adequate food, overhead cover and resting sites for all individuals. Pine marten ability to occupy open fields seems thus more related to the behavioural flexibility of the species, rather than to the need to supplement dens and forage from complementary lower quality habitat. The high quality of the Mediterranean continental area studied could also explain the selection of open areas by the pine marten. Our results offer useful information on pine marten ecology and may be helpful for conservation management of this species in southern Europe.     

应用红外相机监测结果估计小型啮齿类物种的种群密度

红外相机(或称相机陷阱)技术可以提供物种组成、种群数量和行为等信息,广泛应用于野生动物的监测与管理。对于可以个体识别的物种,红外相机结合标志重捕法可准确估计其种群密度。但对于不可个体识别的动物,目前尚无成熟方法来估计其种群密度。建立了一个新方法,通过模拟个体运动并匹配红外相机监测数据来估计动物的种群密度。在长白山国家级自然保护区25hm2森林动态监测样地中,以每公顷一台的密度布设红外相机,调查小型啮齿动物的种群数量。在2011年和2012年冬季分别监测41d和40d。然后,设计模型模拟不同密度下啮齿类物种的运动过程,同时记录它们在25hm2的区域内被25台相机拍摄的次数。应用随机森林算法建立回归模型来匹配模拟结果与监测结果,估计啮齿类物种在样地内的密度及其置信区间。这是一种全新的利用红外相机监测数据估计种群密度的方法,可以填补对不可个体识别物种密度估计方法的空缺。     

Spatio-temporal population genetics of the Danish pine marten (Martes martes)

A spatio-temporal study of genetic variation in the Danish pine marten ( Martes martes ) populations from the Jutland peninsula and from the island of Sealand was performed using 11 microsatellite markers. Samples obtained from 1892 to 2003 were subdivided into historical (prior to 1970) and recent (from 1970) groups. As compared with the historical samples, there was a significant loss of genetic variation in the recent Jutland population, but not in Sealand. Effective population sizes were estimated using Bayesian-based software (TMVP). Historical effective population sizes were 5897 (90% highest probability density, HPD, limits: 1502–6849) in Jutland and 1300 (90% HPD limits: 224–5929) in Sealand, whereas recent effective population sizes were 14.7 (90% HPD limits: 10.9–23.5) in Jutland and 802 (90% HPD limits: 51.8–5510) in Sealand. Significant genetic differentiation ( F _ST) was found between the two historical samples, between the two recent samples, and between the historical and the recent sample in Jutland; whereas the F _ST value between the historical and the recent sample in Sealand was not significant. The significant genetic differentiation between the historical and the recent samples indicates changes in the genetic compositions over time, and the higher F _ST values between the two recent samples, as compared with the two historical samples, indicates that the populations in Sealand and Jutland have drifted apart within a short time span. No deviation from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium was found within populations, indicating no further substructuring.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 93 , 457–464.     

cameratrapR: An R package for estimating animal density using camera trapping data

• 1.Camera trapping plays an important role in wildlife surveys, and provides valuable information for estimation of population density. While mark-recapture techniques can estimate population density for species that can be individually recognized or marked, there are no robust methods to estimate density of species that cannot be individually identified.
• 2.We developed a new approach to estimate population density based on the simulation of individual movement within the camera grid. Simulated animals followed a correlated random walk with the movement parameters of segment length, angular deflection, movement distance and home-range size derived from empirical movement paths. Movement was simulated under a series of population densities. We used the Random Forest algorithm to determine the population density with the highest likelihood of matching the camera trap data. We developed an R package, cameratrapR, to conduct simulations and estimate population density.
• 3.Compared with line transect surveys and the random encounter model, cameratrapR provides more reliable estimates of wildlife density with narrower confidence intervals. Functions are provided to visualize movement paths, derive movement parameters, and plot camera trapping results.
• 4.The package allows researchers to estimate population sizes/densities of animals that cannot be individually identified and cameras are deployed in a grid pattern.

     

Metagenomic analysis of the viral flora of pine marten and European badger feces

A thorough understanding of the diversity of viruses in wildlife provides epidemiological baseline information about potential pathogens. Metagenomic analysis of the enteric viral flora revealed a new anellovirus and bocavirus species in pine martens and a new circovirus-like virus and geminivirus-related DNA virus in European badgers. In addition, sequences with homology to viruses from the families Paramyxo- and Picornaviridae were detected.     

Linking habitat characteristics with genetic diversity of the European pine marten (Martes martes) in France

Although typically considered as a forest specialist species, the European pine marten (Martes martes) is an example of a number of species that have recently been found to also live in fragmented landscapes. Considering that habitat fragmentation and loss is a major threat to the persistence of mammal species in such landscapes, we investigated the association between habitat characteristics and genetic diversity across four pine marten populations occupying contrasting landscapes in France with different degrees of forest availability and fragmentation. Bayesian and multivariate clustering methods evidenced the presence of three genetic clusters and isolation by distance between populations was found at the national scale. We found an overall moderate level of genetic variability, but no evidence of a bottleneck or deficit in heterozygosity in any of the populations. No pattern of isolation by distance was found within the populations, except in the one located in the Pyrenean Mountains which appeared partly isolated from other continental populations and also showed a lower level of genetic diversity. No obvious association between the pattern of genetic variability and the pattern of forested habitat characteristics was found. We discuss the possibility that pine martens show greater behavioural plasticity than typically expected allowing them to adapt to different habitat types.     

Range expansion of the pine marten (Martes martes) in an agricultural landscape matrix (NW Italy)

Habitat segregation is considered to favour the coexistence of sympatric pine martens Martes martes and stone martens M. foina, the latter being displaced to agricultural and urbanised areas. Subsequent to the report of pine martens in cultivated areas of the western River Po plain (NW Italy), we reviewed all available information on the presence of this species in plain areas of northern Italy and, for two study areas, applied a non-invasive PCR-RFLP method for the identification of Martes species from faecal mtDNA.A total of 24 pine marten records were collected, grouped in the western part of the River Po plain. The number of records showed an exponential increase from 1988 to 2007, the percentage of woods in a 10 km² wide circular plot surrounding the location of records being inversely correlated to its distance from the 300 m a.s.l. contour line. In the two study areas, 36 out of 119 “marten-like” faeces were assigned to the pine marten, whilst none belonged to the stone marten. In the best monitored area, the pine marten was present almost constantly.Our results suggest that the pine marten is expanding its range to include cultivated areas which were previously considered a prerogative of the more synanthropic stone marten.     

Spatial organisation and dynamics of the pine marten Martes martes population in Białowieza Forest (E Poland) compared with other European woodlands

We studied factors affecting density and spacing patterns in the pine marten Martes martes population inhabiting temperate forests of Bia?owieza National Park, eastern Poland. From 1985/1986 to 1995/1996 marten densities ranged from 3.63 to 7.57 individuals 10 km^?2 (mean 5.4) and were positively correlated with abundance of forest rodents in the previous year. The rate of marten population growth was inversely density‐dependent and positively related to rodent density. Annual mortality rate averaged 0.384 and tended to be negatively related to marten densities. Mean annual home range of males (2.58 km², SE=0.24) was larger than that of females (1.41 km², SE=0.20). Seasonal home ranges also differed significantly between males and females. Both sexes held the smallest ranges in December–January. Female ranges increased in April–May, whereas those of males increased in June–September when they were mating. Fidelity of pine martens to their home ranges was very high. The mean shift between arithmetic centres of seasonal ranges was 0.25 km, and the ranges recorded in two consecutive seasons overlapped, on average, by 87–90%. We observed very little home range overlap between neighbouring male (mean 4–6%) or female (mean 6%) marten. Year round the neighbouring individuals of the same sex neither avoided nor attracted each other. Females attracted males only during the spring‐summer mating season. A review of other studies has documented that winter severity and seasonal variation in ecosystem productivity were essential factors shaping the biogeographic variation in pine marten densities between 41^o and 68^oN. The density of marten populations increased in areas with mild winters and lower seasonality. Maximum population densities (indicative of habitat carrying capacity) were correlated with mean winter temperature. In Europe, male home ranges increased with decreasing forest cover in a study area, whereas female ranges varied positively with rodent abundance.     

Pseudorabies virus in European wild boar from central Italy

Tissue and blood samples were collected from 152 wild boars (Sus scrofa) from the Maremma area (Grosseto district, Central Italy) between November 2002 and January 2003. The presence of pseudorabies virus (PRV) antibodies, antigen, and DNA were confirmed by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunohistochemistry, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), respectively. Of 152 animals, 62 (41%) were positive for viral antigen in tonsillar tissue. Of the 80 serum samples that were suitable for testing, 41 (51%) were positive for PRV antibodies. Positive immunohistochemistry results were confirmed by PCR. A significantly higher prevalence of PRV antigen and seroprevalence was detected in older animals. No differences were detected between males and females or for animals coming from different areas sampled. Results confirm that PRV is endemic in this wild boar population with a high prevalence of infection. The results of immunohistochemistry investigations demonstrated that a large number of wild boars harbor PRV in tonsillar tissues and should be considered as an important reservoir of PRV.     

红外相机技术在鼠类密度估算中的应用

2009年5月至2011年7月,在古田山国家自然保护区24 hm2(600 m×400 m)样地中用分层随机抽样法布置20台红外相机,监测样地内的鼠类密度.利用红外相机技术,引用物理学中气体分子碰撞率原理,在不对鼠类进行个体识别的情况下,估算样地内鼠类密度.结果表明,以此估算的样地内鼠类密度D3与标志重捕法估算的鼠类密度D之间不存在显著差异(P＞0.05),两者契合程度高,说明此模型具有相当高的精确性.而在较高的相机分布密度(0.83台/hm2)下得出的鼠类密度季节消长状况也验证了该模型的可靠程度.     

Summer food of sympatric red fox and pine marten in the German Alps

Based on fecal analyses, we compared summer diet composition and trophic niche breadth for the sympatric red fox Vulpes vulpes (n=55 scats) and pine marten Martes martes (n=64) in the foothills of the German Alps. Mammals accounted for 41 and 51% of the consumed biomass by pine martens and red foxes, respectively, and no single mammal species exceeded 8% of the diet. The larger red fox consumed a wider range of prey sizes than the smaller pine marten, and both consumed large amounts of plants and also insects. Whereas the Levins index suggested that both predators have specialist feeding niches, the Shannon-Wiener index showed that both predators were relatively generalist. Despite its preliminary nature, our study suggests that a strict distinction between generalist and specialist trophic niches is not justified for medium-sized carnivores in the Alps, particularly as results greatly depend on the indices used.     

Sett density as an estimator of population density in the European badger Meles meles

• 1 Estimations of European badger population density in the UK are usually based on surveys of numbers of main setts. However, this approach cannot be used in low‐density areas, such as the Mediterranean region, where no main setts can be defined. Therefore, an alternative method is needed to estimate badger density over large areas.
• 2 We reviewed the existing published information to evaluate whether badger density is correlated to the density of all setts in an area (not only the main setts) and to ask whether badger density can be predicted from total sett number throughout the geographical range of the species.
• 3 In multiple regression analysis, badger density and the size of the study area explained 73% of the variance in sett density. Badger density had a significant positive effect on sett density, while the effect of study area size was not significant. Therefore, total sett density can be used to obtain an estimation of relative badger density in all habitats and regions throughout the badger's geographical range, allowing comparative research.

     

红外相机技术在我国野生动物监测研究中的应用

<正>长期以来,野生动物(特别是兽类)监测面临着极大困难,具体表现在:(1)许多野生动物种群数量日渐减少,甚至濒临灭绝;(2)未经许可,许多珍稀种类禁止采集实体样本;(3)许多动物昼伏夜出,活动隐秘,很难观察到实体,甚至很难发现痕迹;(4)许多动物仅分布在人稀罕至的森林或其他生境中,监测难度大、成本高;(5)野生动物行为习性和生存空间多种多样,难以形成统一的监测方法和技术标准。20世纪90年代以来,"3S"技术、分子生物学技术、数码影像技术(如自动相机技术或红外相机技术     

Socio-spatial ecology of pine marten (Martes martes) in conifer forests,Ireland

Understanding the social organisation and spacing patterns of wildlife populations is an important aspect of conservation management and applied science. The present study investigated the spatial ecology of pine marten (Martes martes) inhabiting conifer forests in Ireland, the largest habitat resource available for the species. It represented the first study of pine marten spacing patterns in Irish conifer forests. Pine marten (n?=?7; five males and two females) were live-trapped and radio-tracked for between 4 and 10 months from March 2008 to March 2009. Mean annual home-range estimates (95 % fixed kernel) for males (150.7 ha) were generally larger than those of females (90.2 ha). There was considerable inter-seasonal overlap in home ranges (approx 85 %) with less inter-sexual (12.0 %) or intra-sexual (11.8 %) overlap, although the sample size of individuals for comparison was small. Pine marten home ranges were stable from season to season. Core ranges varied in size from 10.6 to 104.1 ha, and as a mean percentage of home-range area were 22.9 and 42.5 % for males and females, respectively. In terms of forest management, potential under occupancy of available space by pine marten and vulnerability of very small core ranges to clear felling practices needs further research to determine any impacts on individuals and populations.