Species-area relations in a New Zealand tussock grassland,with implications for nature reserve design and for community structure

Abstract. A tussock grassland, in Blackrock Reserve, New Zealand, was sampled thoroughly at scales ranging from 0.01 m x 0.01 m to 20 m x 20 m, to investigate species-area relations of relevance to plant community structure, and to offer a pointer to reserve design. In total, 96 species were found. Of the native vascular species among these, 20% were new records for the reserve. For the total and the native vascular flora the observed points fell midway between the Arrhenius and Gleason fitted curves. Cryptogams fitted the Arrhenius model well, with z close to the 0.26 value expected for isolates under Preston's Canonical hypothesis. Extrapolation of the Arrhenius curve to the whole of the New Zealand uplands gave values far too large; the Gleason curve gave values much too low. A General Root model is introduced. It fits the observed species richnesses at various quadrat sizes considerably better than previous models. When biogeographic limitations on species richness are included, extrapolation of the General Root curve accurately predicts the size of the upland flora. This fit, the lack of an asymptote, and the rarity structure, are compatible with a random and individualistic model of community structure. However, there are differences in species-area relation between vascular and cryptogamic plants, which cautions against expecting any universal type of community structure. Extrapolations using the General Root model suggest that if the ideal is a 10 km x 10 km reserve, a reserve one tenth that size would contain 81% of the native species in that ideal, and the present Blackrock Reserve contains 67%.     

Relative contribution of vegetation types to regional biodiversity in Central Zagross forests of Iran

Managers in conservation biology are continually faced with the dilemma of needing to demonstrate which areas should receive conservation priority based on the diversity of species contained. Darenasab (Hashtadpahloo) forest catchment with dominated oak species in Mediterranean forests of Zagross in Iran was chosen as a case study. In order to estimate plant species richness in different vegetation types at landscape level, field method that sample both trees and herbs strata simultaneously (modified multi-scale Whittaker plots) was used to make species–area curves. Twenty-one modified multi-scale Whittaker plots (250 m² area) were located randomly in four vegetation types. Three species–area, species–log (area) and log (species)–log (area) curves models were constructed. The log (species)–log (area) model had the highest adjusted r² among others. Based on Jaccard’s coefficient, the pure oak vegetation type was the most heterogeneous (22% overlap), and the cushion plants vegetation type is the most homogeneous (29% overlap). The slope of species–area curves had the least range (0.05) and the slope of species–log (area) curves had the largest range (4.38). When the slopes of species–log (area) curves divided by mean Jaccard’s coefficient, the species–log (area) curves estimated values closest to those observed. The index of vegetation types contribution to regional diversity for determining conservation priority in off-reserve area, based on ranking of the observed mean species per plots, slopes of the species–log (area) curves, mean of Jaccard’s coefficient, mean unique species per plot, and the number of threatened species in each vegetation types were calculated. This composite index may provide a scientific method to rank vegetation types with high conservation value.     

桂林岩溶石山不同坡向灌丛植物多样性与土壤环境因子的关系

该研究以桂林岩溶石山灌丛植物为对象,分析了灌丛群落物种丰富度指数、Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou均匀度指数与土壤环境因子随坡向(阴坡-阳坡)梯度的变化规律。结果表明:(1)土壤含水量、土壤温度、土壤pH和土壤全磷均对植物群落类型及物种分布具有显著的影响,坡向对植物群落类型及物种分布具有极显著的影响;而土壤全氮、土壤有效氮和土壤有机碳对植物群落类型及物种分布则均无显著影响。(2)除Pielou均匀度指数在阴坡与阳坡差异不显著外,物种丰富度指数、Shannon-Wiener指数对不同坡向微生境均存在显著差异。其中,物种丰富度指数和Shannon-Wiener指数在不同坡向上均表现出相同的变化趋势,即阴坡大于阳坡。(3)除土壤pH值和土壤全磷含量差异不显著外,坡向对土壤含水量、土壤温度、土壤全氮含量、土壤有效氮含量、土壤有机碳含量均产生显著的影响。其中,土壤含水量、土壤有效氮含量、土壤有机碳含量则为阴坡大于阳坡,而土壤温度和土壤全氮含量为阴坡小于阳坡。(4)多元逐步回归分析表明,在阴坡上,各土壤环境因子对物种丰富度指数、Shannon-Wiener指数和Pielou均匀度指数作用均不显著;在阳坡上,物种丰富度指数与土壤温度呈显著负相关、与土壤有机碳含量呈显著正相关;Shannon-Wiener指数与土壤含水量和土壤有机碳含量呈显著正相关;Pielou均匀度指数与土壤有机碳含量呈显著正相关、与土壤全磷含量呈显著负相关。     

Presence of cushion plants increases community diversity in the high equatorial Andes

Cushion plants are a common growth form in the equatorial páramo vegetation and their surfaces are often colonized by other plants. This paper analyzes the effect of the cushion plants on the community diversity at 4650 m on the eastern slope of the Iliniza volcano in Ecuador. Ninety sample plots of 1 m² size were located in the study area and were divided into 25 subplots in which presence and abundance of plant species was recorded. The community diversity was expressed as species richness, Simpson's diversity index, and evenness. Correlation between the cushion species and the composition of the colonists was measured with the CCA ordination analysis, correlation between the cushion cover and community diversity was measured by means of correlation analysis. Randomized species–area curves were used to compare richness of plant communities with and without the cushions. A total of 32 species were found including five cushion plants. Most species preferred to grow on the cushion surface whereas only a few species were able to colonize open ground. Species richness and Simpson's index were significantly correlated to the cushion area but no correlation was found for evenness. The cushions were usually composed of more than one species which hampered the examination of the cushion–colonist specific relationships. Nevertheless, cushions of Azorella and Arenaria seemed to provide more favorable habitat for colonization than the other cushion species. Comparison with an earlier study made on Iliniza indicates that the presence of the cushions significantly increases the richness of the plant community.     

Effects of grazing exclusion on plant species richness and phytomass accumulation vary across a regional productivity gradient

Question: Does long‐term grazing exclusion affect plant species diversity? And does this effect vary with long‐term phytomass accumulation across a regional productivity gradient? Location: Lowland grassy ecosystems across the state of Victoria, southeast Australia. Methods: Floristic surveys and phytomass sampling were conducted across a broad‐scale productivity gradient in grazing exclusion plots and adjacent grazed areas. Differences in species richness, evenness and life‐form evenness between grazed and ungrazed areas were analysed. The environmental drivers of long‐term phytomass accumulation were assessed using multiple linear regression analysis. Results: Species richness declined in the absence of grazing only at the high productivity sites (i.e. when phytomass accumulation was >500 g m^?2). Species evenness and life‐form evenness also showed a negative relationship with increasing phytomass accumulation. Phytomass accumulation was positively associated with both soil nitrogen and rainfall, and negatively associated with tree cover. Conclusions: Competitive dominance is a key factor regulating plant diversity in productive grassy ecosystems, but canopy disturbance is not likely to be necessary to maintain diversity in less productive systems. The results support the predictions of models of the effects of grazing on plant diversity, such as the dynamic equilibrium model, whereby the effects of herbivory are context‐dependent and vary according to gradients of rainfall, soil fertility and tree cover.     

Influence of Plant Community Composition on Biomass Production in Planted Grasslands

United States energy policy mandates increased use of renewable fuels. Restoring grasslands could contribute to a portion of this requirement through biomass harvest for bioenergy use. We investigated which plant community characteristics are associated with differences in biomass yield from a range of realistic native prairie plantings (n = 11; i.e., conservation planting, restoration, and wildlife cover). Our primary goal was to understand whether patterns in plant community composition and the Floristic Quality Index (FQI) were related to productivity as evidenced by dormant season biomass yield. FQI is an objective measure of how closely a plant community represents that of a pre-European settlement community. Our research was conducted in planted fields of native tallgrass prairie species, and provided a gradient in floristic quality index, species richness, species diversity, and species evenness in south-central Wisconsin during 2008 and 2009. We used a network of 15 randomly located 1 m² plots within each field to characterize the plant community and estimate biomass yield by clipping the plots at the end of each growing season. While plant community composition and diversity varied significantly by planting type, biomass yield did not vary significantly among planting types (ANOVA; P >0.05). Biomass yield was positively correlated with plant community evenness, richness, C4 grass cover, and floristic quality index, but negatively correlated with plant species diversity in our multi-season multiple linear mixed effects models. Concordantly, plots with biomass yield in the lowest quartile (biomass yield < 3500 kh/ha) had 8% lower plant community evenness and 9% lower FQI scores than those in the upper quartile (biomass yield > 5800 kh/ha). Our results suggest that promoting the establishment of fields with high species evenness and floristic quality may increase biomass yield, while simultaneously supporting biodiversity.     

GROWTH PATTERN,REPRODUCTION, AND SELF-THINNING IN SEAWEEDS1

In unispecific plant stands, the logarithm of mean individual weight (w) depends on the logarithm of density (d) by the -3/4 power law (a slope of -1.5 and an intercept ranging from 2.3 to 5.0). The analysis of the w and d relationships in whole cohorts of two seaweed species from the Strait of Gibraltar shows deviations from the canonical equation. The kelp Phyllariopsis purpurascens (C. Agardh) Henry et South (Phaeophyta) growing at a 30-m depth has the lowest intercept value (0.6) recorded for any plant species and a slope not significantly different from -1.5. The slope value is in accordance with those found in species whose growth is not stopped by reproduction. Irradiance under a single layer of blades was lower than the photosynthetic light compensation point, and this could be due to overdispersion of the shoots and, in consequence, to the low intercept value of the self-thinning equation. The w to d relationships in Asparagopsis armata Harvey (Rhodophyta) show two different components: no dependence between these two variables (slope not significantly different from 0) at densities < 500 shoots·m^?2, and a slope more negative (-2.1) than proposed by the -3/2 power law at densities > 500 shoots·m^?2. The pattern at high densities could be due to intraspecific competition for light, whereas the slope ～0 at low densities could be related to inhibition of growth by reproduction (cystocarp and carpospore production). Therefore, rather than being considered exceptional, we suggest that a gradient of variability could be expected in the dependence of w on d when specific growth patterns and reproduction are considered.     

Scale dependence in desert plant diversity

The relationship between the number of species and the area sampled is one of the oldest and best-documented patterns in community ecology. An equation of the form S = cA ^z describing more precisely the species–area relation for plant species in smaller area is proposed as a result of intensive examination of species presence. Several study and field data from a wild range of plant and animal taxa suggest that the slope, z, of a graph of the logarithm of species richness against the logarithm of area is not a constant to the grassland or woodland community. We collected replicated and randomized plant data at 6 spatial scales from 1 m² to 1 km² in the desert region of northwest China to identify the scale dependence in desert plant biodiversity. The results showed that the slope of the log–log plot varied systematically with spatial scale. The value of z was high (0.37) at small scales from 1 to 10 m² and it decreased with increased spatial scale subsequently. When spatial scales varied from 1 m² to 1 km², the value of z varied from 0.37 to 0.035, suggesting that desert plant diversity has strongly scale-dependence at the small scales (less than 100 m²). The result is different from the research of grassland and woodland communities.     

坡向因子对黄土高原草地群落功能多样性的影响

研究群落水平上的植物功能性状特征及功能多样性随坡向的变化规律,对认识不同坡向上的植物群落形成过程具有重要意义。以黄土高原不同坡向上的自然草地群落为研究对象,比较研究了植物功能性状(株高和比叶面积)和功能多样性测度指标(功能丰富度、功能均匀度和功能离散度)随坡向的变化规律。研究结果显示:(1)阴坡的株高和比叶面积显著高于其他坡向;(2)一元性状的功能丰富度在不同坡向间均无显著差异;阴坡和半阴坡的多元性状功能丰富度显著高于阳坡;(3)阴坡的株高功能均匀度显著高于半阳坡,而比叶面积功能均匀度在各坡向的差异并不显著;多元性状功能均匀度在不同坡向差异显著,阴坡最高,半阳坡最低;(4)阴坡和半阴坡的株高功能离散度显著高于阳坡和半阳坡,而半阴坡的比叶面积功能离散度显著高于阳坡;半阴坡的多元性状功能离散度Rao指数显著高于阳坡。研究结果暗示了,在阴坡和半阴坡上,植物对群落内的生态位空间和资源利用更充分,种间竞争强度较低,不同物种之间生态位高度分化;而在阳坡和半阳坡上,由于水分等条件的限制植物可占据的生态位空间有限,导致其对占据的生态位空间使用不足,物种间资源竞争较强烈。在群落水平上,研究地区的植物功能性状及功能多样性随坡向的规律性变化,反映了黄土高原植被群落构建过程中坡向因子对功能性状的筛选效应。该研究结果对该区的植被恢复重建的物种选择及植被布局规划具有重要实践意义。     

Analysis of the endophytic lifestyle and plant growth promotion of Burkholderia terricola ZR2-12

Nitrogen (N) enrichment has been pinpointed as a main driver for biodiversity change. Most of our knowledge of effects of increased N availability on ecosystems comes from northern Europe and America. Most other ecosystem types have been neglected. In contribution to filling this gap, our study examined the short-term effects of N enrichment in a N-manipulation (doses and forms) field study of a severely nutrient-limited Mediterranean ecosystem located in a Natura 2000 site in Portugal. Our aims were to (a) understand the effects of N enrichment on plant diversity, and to (b) link N-driven plant community changes with changes in soil inorganic N availability. In general, the standing plant community responded to short-term N enrichment with increased richness and evenness. Changes in the plant community occurred through changes in species composition and cover, and were correlated with soil N, and N and phosphorus availability. Fertilization with 80 kg NH₄NO₃ ha^?1 y^?1 was the treatment which changed plant composition the most, while geophytes, hemicryptophytes and therophytes were the biological types more responsive to N enrichment. Dittrichia viscosa was the only species that responded significantly to increased N, i.e., its cover decreased in control plots, but increased in fertilized plots, suggesting that it could be used as an indicator of N enrichment in Mediterranean maquis. Changes in plant richness and evenness were correlated with the mean and/or the variation (standard deviation) of soil inorganic N parameters (e.g. nitrate concentration in the soil solution and the soil??s ratio of bioavailable N and phosphorus) measured along the time between the two plant community assessments. However, short- and long-term effects can be quite distinct, thus highlighting the need for further studies.     

高原鼠兔有效洞穴密度对高山嵩草群落及其主要种群空间分布特征的影响

高原鼠兔(Ochotona curzoniae)有效洞穴密度变化会引发高山嵩草(Kobresia pygmaea)草甸植物群落及其种群分布格局发生变化。采用野外调查法研究了高原鼠兔有效洞穴密度对高山嵩草群落特征及其主要种群分布格局的影响。结果表明:随高原鼠兔有效洞穴密度增加,高山嵩草草甸植物群落的优势种没发生明显变化,部分伴生种发生更替;高度、盖度、多样性指数和均匀度指数呈现降低态势;地上生物量和丰富度指数变化不明显;高山嵩草和矮火绒草(Leontopodium nanum)种群的盖度、密度以及生物量均呈现降低态势,而达乌里秦艽(Gentiana dahurica)和小花草玉梅(Anemone rivularis var.flore-minors)种群的盖度、密度和生物量呈增加趋势。高山嵩草和矮火绒草的种群分布格局从8个/625m2和14个/625m2的聚集分布分别变为34个/625m2时的均匀分布和随机分布,达乌里秦艽和小花草玉梅种群从8个/625m2和14个/625m2的随机分布变为23个/625m2和34个/625m2时的聚集分布,这说明高原鼠兔有效洞穴密度变化改变了高山嵩草群落的特征和主要植物种群的空间分布格局,而对应群落特征和种群分布格局改变的有效洞穴密度为14个/625m2和23个/625m2。     

Effects of productivity on species–area curves in herbaceous vegetation: evidence from experimental and observational data

The effects of productivity on the parameters of the species–area curve were investigated in this paper using two data sets on terrestrial plant communities: (1) one including 48 plots in 12 experimental sites on ploughed, formerly cultivated fields in the Siena region, Italy, and (2) one including 40 plots in hay meadows in the Bremen region, Germany. In both regions, species presence of vascular plants was recorded in nested plots ranging in size from 0.004 to 256 m² and 0.001 to 1000 m², respectively. Productivity was estimated as dry standing biomass. In the Siena data set, species richness showed a humped‐back relation to biomass in the plot sizes up to 1 m². For the larger plot sizes, no significant correlations were found. In the Bremen data set, positive relation between species number and biomass was observed at the smallest spatial scale (0.001 m²), whereas the relation disappeared or tended to be negative for the larger plot sizes. In general, the slopes z of the log species–log area curves (SAC) were negatively related to biomass in both data sets, while the intercept c increased with biomass in the Siena data set and was unrelated to biomass in the Bremen data set. The relationship between c and z was negative in the Siena data set and positive in the Bremen data set. The above results differed somewhat depending on which plot sizes were considered for the calculation of the SAC. Literature data confirmed that there are no clear patterns in the inter‐correlations between productivity, small scale and large scale species richness. Sites differing in productivity and in the slopes and intercepts of SAC may thus give rise to different species richness–productivity relationships. There can be one possible relation between species richness and biomass at one spatial scale (e.g. humped‐back) and another type of relation, even opposite, at another spatial scale. This suggests that the properties of species–area curves do not respond in a uniform way to the changes in productivity, but depend on the type of habitat or plant community and its particular properties. The parameter of the SAC can then hardly be used as scale‐independent parameter to investigate the effects of ecological factors, such as productivity, on species richness. The lack of clear patterns in the relations between small scale and large scale species richness implies that the predictions of the species‐pool hypothesis may fail when applied to plot sizes as dealt with in this study.     

The effects of environmental factors on some vegetative characteristics of Quercus brantii in Kouh gachan,Ilam, west of Iran

In this study the effects of environmental factors on some vegetative characteristics of Quercus brantii was investigated in Kouh gachan, Ilam, West of Iran, using multivariate analysis. Therefore 64 sample plots with a size of 200?m² were considered for measuring the vegetative parameters. Some environmental factors such as slope, aspect and soil depth were recorded in all sample plots. The Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) was used to investigate the relation between vegetative parameters and environmental factors. Redundancy analysis (RDA) analysis was also used to interpret the results. The results of DCA analysis showed that the effect of environmental factors on vegetation cover is significant. Slope had the smallest and the soil depth had the biggest effect on vegetative characteristics of Quercus brantii. The results also confirmed the usage of RDA analysis for investigating the relationship between environmental factors and vegetative characteristics.     

湖南省阳明山山顶苔藓矮林优势种空间分布格局

山顶苔藓矮林是亚热带山地常绿阔叶林区在极端气候与环境条件下发育的一种群落变型,通过研究优势植物的分布格局与规模,可以有效地指导植被保护与管理活动。在湖南阳明山国家级自然保护区的山顶苔藓矮林区设置3个样地,应用相邻格子法对优势种云锦杜鹃(Rhododendron fortunei)进行每木调查,在不同取样尺度(面积)上采用方差/均值比率法(v/m)、负二项参数(k)、丛生指数(I)、平均拥挤度(m~*)、聚块性指数(m~*/m)、聚集指数(C_a)和格林指数(GI)等聚集强度指数对云锦杜鹃种群分布格局进行分析。结果表明:阳明山山顶苔藓矮林优势种云锦杜鹃种群在北、南、东三个方位上的空间分布格局总体上为聚集分布,随着取样尺度的增大,聚集格局强度和规模依次减弱;而山顶苔藓矮林优势种群不同年龄阶段的空间分布特征为随着种群年龄的增大,其空间分布格局呈聚集强向聚集弱、以至于向随机分布发展;阳明山山顶苔藓矮林优势种群及其分布格局形成的主要原因是云锦杜鹃种群本身的种子繁殖及传播方式和类营养繁殖等生物学特性及方位、坡向等环境因子影响所致。     

氮添加对宁夏荒漠草原植物初级生产力的影响机制

许多研究探索了与全球变化相关的生态系统功能的变化,但对生态系统功能变化的机制与途径了解较少。初级生产力是生态系统功能的重要组分,但关于氮(N)添加下荒漠草原植物群落初级生产力如何变化以及变化机制尚未明确,N是否通过影响生物多样性来影响荒漠草原初级生产力?为此,本研究在荒漠草原开展了为期4年的N添加控制实验(2018—2021年),试验处理包括对照和4个N添加水平(5、10、20和40 g m^-2 a^-1),研究了N添加对荒漠草原物种多样性、功能多样性、初级生产力及其关系的影响。结果表明：(1)N添加处理(2018—2021年)改变了植物物种多样性及功能多样性,但年际间变化趋势不同。N添加处理第四年(2021年)荒漠草原植物功能多样性(Rao指数)、群落加权平均值-株高、功能均匀度和功能离散度均显著增加,而荒漠草原植物物种丰富度和Shannon-Wiener指数均显著降低。(2)N添加可以通过影响物种丰富度和功能多样性进而间接地促进荒漠草原初级生产力,但群落加权性状值-株高对初级生产力的影响是正效应,而物种丰富度和功能离散度对初级生产力的影响是...     

Relating species abundance distributions to species-area curves in two Mediterranean-type shrublands

Abstract. Based on both theoretical and empirical studies there is evidence that different species abundance distributions underlie different species‐area relationships. Here I show that Australian and Californian shrubland communities (at the scale from 1 to 1000 m²) exhibit different species‐area relationships and different species abundance patterns. The species‐area relationship in Australian heathlands best fits an exponential model and species abundance (based on both density and cover) follows a narrow log normal distribution. In contrast, the species‐area relationship in Californian shrublands is best fit with the power model and, although species abundance appears to fit a log normal distribution, the distribution is much broader than in Australian heathlands. I hypothesize that the primary driver of these differences is the abundance of small‐stature annual species in California and the lack of annuals in Australian heathlands. Species‐area is best fit by an exponential model in Australian heathlands because the bulk of the species are common and thus the species‐area curves initially rise rapidly between 1 and 100 m². Annuals in Californian shrublands generate very broad species abundance distributions with many uncommon or rare species. The power function is a better model in these communities because richness increases slowly from 1 to 100 m² but more rapidly between 100 and 1000 m² due to the abundance of rare or uncommon species that are more likely to be encountered at coarser spatial scales. The implications of this study are that both the exponential and power function models are legitimate representations of species‐area relationships in different plant communities. Also, structural differences in community organization, arising from different species abundance distributions, may lead to different species‐area curves, and this may be tied to patterns of life form distribution.     

Competition for patchy soil resources reduces community evenness

The presence of small-scale patches of soil resources has been predicted to increase competition, because multiple species will proliferate roots in the same small area, and therefore decrease plant diversity. I tested whether such patches reduced species evenness in a community of four old-field species, both with and without interspecific interactions. In species mixtures, patches reduced evenness, while in ??communities?? constructed via combined monocultures, in which species did not compete, patches increased evenness. Therefore, the reduction in evenness in response to patches was due to changes in competition. Community-level changes may be attributable to plant foraging traits??in species with low foraging precision, competition reduced abundance much more in patchy soils than in even soils, while in species with high root foraging precision, the effect of competition was similar in patchy and even soils.     

岷江干旱河谷植物群落的复杂性

通过对岷江干旱河谷植被及环境因子的系统取样调查,研究了该地区植物群落复杂性及其与环境因子的关系,探讨了群落复杂性与多样性、均匀度、物种丰富度之间的关系.随着海拔的增加,群落总复杂性和结构复杂性均表现为“高-低-高”的变化趋势,表明高海拔和低海拔段有较高的复杂性,中海拔段复杂性较低;位于干旱河谷核心区的样带3、4较北部过渡区样带1、2和南部过渡区样带5、6有着较低的群落总复杂性;不同坡位、坡形及坡向,群落总复杂性和结构复杂性,均表现为上坡位＞下坡位＞中坡位,凹坡＞平破＞凸坡,阴坡＞半阴半阳坡＞阳坡.华帚菊-小黄素馨灌丛的总复杂性最高,西南野丁香灌丛、驼绒藜灌丛的总复杂性最低,橿子栎灌丛和群小花滇紫草灌丛的结构复杂性较高; 群落总复杂性与有机质、全N、土壤含水量、水解N、速效K呈现出显著的二次曲线关系,与全K、全P、速效P、pH值没有明显的相关关系.总复杂性与多样性、均匀度、物种丰富度的关系密切,均呈现显著的线性正相关关系.均匀度和结构复杂性呈现极显著的线性负相关,表明结构复杂性随均匀度的增加而减小.作为群落总复杂性与多样性的区分,结构复杂性对群落内物种数的变化较为敏感,不仅与均匀度有关,还与群落物种数量有关.结构复杂性和多样性作为群落总复杂性的两个组成部分,对总复杂性的影响随着研究区域和群落的不同而不同.