Feeding ecology and dietary differences between blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni Matschie) groups in logged and unlogged forest, Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda

Several studies have investigated the effects of logging on primate population density, and attempted to relate density differences to changes in vegetation composition. As population density in some forest primates may be considerably influenced by dietary quality, it is important to understand how the effects of vegetation changes commonly associated with logging influence primate feeding ecology. Results are presented from a study carried out in the Budongo Forest Reserve in Uganda to investigate differences in blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni) feeding ecology in forest blocks with different logging history. Dietary composition differed between logged and unlogged forest, with a higher proportion of unripe fruit consumed in logged forest. By contrast, the proportion of young leaves, invertebrates and seeds in the diet was higher in unlogged forest. Variations in the intake of fruit was also higher in unlogged forest, but feeding patterns on other dietary items were more selective. These differences in diet reflect differences in availability of different categories of food items, as determined by tree species composition, abundance and plant phenological patterns. The observed differences between feeding ecology in logged and unlogged forest are discussed in relation to primate feeding ecology and habitat composition in Budongo.     

Reproductive biology of Sykes and blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis)

Thirty-five live births were recorded over a 5-year period from three subspecies of the mitis (Sykes and blue) monkey (Cercopithecus mitis) maintained outdoors in single-male harem breeding groups. There was no indication of birth seasonality. Females of one subspecies, C. m. kolbi, were individually caged, and basic reproductive parameters were monitored. A menstrual cycle length of 31.9 ± 6.0 days was recorded, and there were a large number of irregular cycles. Within individuals, mean progesterone and estrogen concentrations during the luteal phase of the cycle ranged from 5.5 to 10.7 nmol/liter and from 542 to 829 pmol/liter, respectively. Attempts at timed matings were unsuccessful. It is concluded that the mitis monkey is slow to adapt reproductively to captivity and is, therefore, not especially well-suited for routine reproductive studies. However, it may prove valuable to elucidate some of the more complex factors controlling guenon reproduction.     

Brief report: Normal hematology values of Sykes monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis albogularis)

Hematologic values are presented for the Sykes monkey (Cercopithecus mitis albogularis). The values are, in general, similar to published findings for other primate species. Elevated hemoglobin, possibly caused by high altitude, was noted. Significant differences of several values between males and females are discussed.     

Diet of samango monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis erythrarchus) in the Cape Vidal dune forest, South Africa

The samango monkey ( Cercopithecus mitis erythrarchus Peters, 1852) is the southernmost representative of the widely-distributed polytypic Cercopithecus mitis species-group. At Cape Vidal (28 S) climatic seasonality causes significant seasonal fluctutation in food abundance. There are, however, no congeneric competitors, and few arboreal frugivores (birds, bats). In spite of seasonality of food abundance at Cape Vidal, samango monkeys maintain a high quality diet, dominated by fruit (51.7%), throughout the year. To a large extent this is made possible by their broad dietary tolerances and the effect of competitive release on food choice. Seasonal insect abundance does, however, place serious constraints on the availability of readily-digestible protein and the acquisition of protein-rich foods must be seen as the critically limiting factor in the dietary behaviour of the samango monkey. Adaptation of gut morphology and symbiotic microflora permit samangos to supplement the diet with large amounts of protein-rich foliar and floral items. Where necessary, even large quantities of less palatable items, such as unripe fruits and mature leaves, may be ingested. Although insects form a small part of the diet a larger variety, than used by equatorial C. mitis populations, are included in the diet. Given that there are no congeneric competitors, nor are the monkeys particularly food stressed, I suggest that the diet of the samango monkey at Cape Vidal most closely reflects the intrinsic food choices of the C. mitis species-group.     

Status and ecology of the golden monkey (Cercopithecus mitis kandti) in Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Uganda

Given the degree to which tropical ecosystems are currently being disturbed by human activities, it is essential to set priorities for conservation and thus it becomes important to consider how best to set these priorities. From this perspective, this study provides the first detailed investigations of Cercopithecus mitis kandti, the golden monkey, focusing on the population in Mgahinga Gorilla National Park (MGNP), Uganda. Specifically, we (1) establish the current status of the golden monkey in terms of population size and distribution within the park in relation to vegetation types and altitude, and (2) investigate the golden monkey's feeding ecology. A total of 67 censuses of 4+ km transects were conducted along a cumulative distance of 299 km and 132 social groups were encountered. Densities were estimated to have increased by 1.6 times since a census 8 years ago, and the total population in the park is estimated to be between 3164 and 5059 individuals. The average size of golden monkey groups in MGNP is 30 individuals (range 3–62). This is similar to that of other subspecies in neighbouring forests. In contrast, the census conducted 8 years before estimated average group size to be eight individuals. Golden monkeys were observed to eat 21 plant species and they were inferred to eat an additional eleven from signs left behind and reports. Both study groups relied upon leaves (primarily young leaves), fruits and invertebrates for food, but the amount of time they fed on these different types of foods varied between the groups. Given the apparent increase in density since the census 8 years ago, the golden monkeys of MGNP appear to be doing well. However, given the number of snares and the extent of illegal extraction of bamboo found during the census, conservation efforts should be increased.     

T-cell lymphosarcoma in a female African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops)

A female African green monkey developed a generalized lymphosarcoma spontaneously that clinically and pathologically resembled malignant lymphoma in human beings infected with human T-lymphotropic virus type I. The monkey was serologically positive for simian T-lymphotropic virus. Immunocytochemical analysis of routinely fixed and paraffin embedded tumor tissue demonstrated neoplastic cells that stained positive with antihuman monoclonal UCHL1 which recognized a T-cell-restricted isotype of leukocyte common antigen.     

Seasonal absence of fishes in tidepools of a boreal environment (Maine,USA)

Tidepool fishes of a rocky, boreal community in Maine (USA) were sampled periodically from September 1979 to September 1988. Unlike tidepool fish communities in many other areas of the world, those in Maine included no year-round residents. Several of the 22 species among the 1,135 fishes collected occupied tidepools seasonally as nursery areas. In particular, juvenile lumpfish,Cyclopterus lumpus, used tidepools from June to December during their first two years of life. Disappearance of these species from tidepools in winter appeared to be primarily a result of low water temperatures and reduced algal cover in pools.Cooperators are the University of Maine, Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Wildlife Management Institute.     

Invasive aspergillosis in a putty-nosed monkey (Cercopithecus nictitans) with adrenocortical Cushing's syndrome

Background  An 18‐year‐old captive female putty‐nosed‐monkey (Cercopithecus nictitans) with a history of long‐term infertility and hyperglucocorticism was euthanized because of perforating thoracic trauma induced by group members and subsequent development of neurological signs. Methods  Complete necropsy and histopathological examination of formalin‐fixed tissue samples was carried out. Results  The monkey showed invasive pulmonary and cerebral infection with Aspergillus fumigatus together with adrenocortical neoplasia and signs of Cushing’s syndrome, such as alopecia with atrophic skin changes, evidence for diabetes mellitus and marked immunosuppression. Conclusions  Spontaneous endocrinopathies are rarely described in non‐human primates. Here we report the first case of spontaneous adrenocortical hyperglucocorticism predisposing to systemic aspergillosis in a putty‐nosed monkey.     

Vocal similarities and social bonds in Campbell's monkey (Cercopithecus campbelli)

This study examined variations of social call structures in female Campbell's monkeys. The comparison of frequency modulations using a similarity index revealed that each individual presented one to three variants. Some variants were shared by two to several individuals, often associated with play. On the contrary, vocal divergence was observed in a socially isolated animal and a negative correlation appeared between similarity index and the frequency of avoidance. This preliminary study gives the first evidence of variant sharing between group members in primates.     

Within-group differences in captive Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana diana) behaviour

This case study examines the activity budgets of captive Diana monkeys (Cercopithecus diana diana) and discusses results in the context of what is known regarding captive and wild-type behaviour in this species and other guenons. The activities of a family group of Diana monkeys (two parents and four offspring) housed at Edinburgh Zoo, UK, were quantified using a 5-min interval scan sampling technique. The 5100 observation points collected showed that the subjects spent the largest proportion of their time observing (approx. 46%), followed by feeding (approx. 15%), playing (approx. 11%), mutual grooming (approx. 8%) and resting (approx. 7%). The daily activity budgets for each of the subjects were tallied and, at the end of the 10-day observation period, used to produce a data matrix consisting of nine behaviour variables per subject. Clear among-individual differences in activity were identified with canonical discriminant function analysis. This multivariate approach illustrated how the combined behaviours of the parent male were distinct from those of the rest of the family group. Within the remainder of the group, the three youngest offspring displayed similar activity budgets, whereas the overall behaviour of the eldest offspring (a female) was between that of its siblings and her mother.     

Enzootic simian piroplasm (Entopolypoides macaci ) in wild-caught Kenyan non-human primates

Background Three species of non‐human primates comprising African green monkeys (AGMs), (Cercopithecus aethiops, n = 89), Syke’s monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis, n = 60) and olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis, n = 30), were screened for Entopolypoides macaci. Methods Observation of blood smears prepared from these animals revealed E. macaci infection rate of 42.7% in AGMs, 35% in Syke’s monkeys and 33.3% in baboons. Results Gender infection rate was 38.2% in females and 29% in males. Statistically, there was no significant difference in infection rates between the monkey species and sexes (P > 0.05). Subsequent indirect immuno fluorescent antibody test supported the morphological appearance of E. macaci observed by microscopy. Sera from infected animals reacted positively (1:625) with E. macaci antigen, but not to Babesia bigemina or B. bovis antigen at 1:125 titer. Conclusion This study has revealed high prevalence of E. macaci infection in all three widely distributed Kenyan non‐human primates. With the continued use of these animals as models for human parasitic diseases, the presence of this highly enzootic parasite should be noted.     

A comparative study of basal metabolism and thermoregulation in a folivorous (Colobus guereza) and an omnivorous (Cercopithecus mitis) primate species

1. Abdominal temperatures (Tab) and oxygen consumption (VO2) were measured in two males each of colobus and Sykes monkeys. 2. Tab in both species had the same range (36 38.5 C), but there were marked differences in the daily rhythms. 3. Low ambient temperatures (Ta) had little effect on Tab; at Ta = 33.5 35.5 C. however, Tab rose quickly to above 40 C. 4. The thermoneutral zone (TNZ) extended from about 5 to 28 C in both species. 5. In the colobus monkeys the basal metabolic rate (BMR) was considerably lower than in the Sykes monkeys: 85% vs 113% of the value predicted from body mass.     

Seasonal variation in serum testosterone, testicular volume and semen characteristics in coatis (Nasua nasua)

The objective was to characterize seasonal changes in serum testosterone concentration, testicular volume and sperm quantity and quality in captive coatis (Nasua nasua) from Pantanal, MT, Brazil. Sampling was done once monthly for 1 y. Mean (± SEM) serum testosterone concentrations (767.37 ± 216.2 ng/ml) and total and progressive sperm motility (79.6 ± 3.9%; 3.8 ± 0.3, on a scale of 0 to 5) peaked in July. The highest combined testis volume (10.3 ± 0.4 cm³) and sperm concentration (403 million ± 102 sperm/ml) occurred in August, at the peak of the winter breeding season. No seasonal effects on percentages of morphologically normal sperm, acrosome integrity, or live sperm were detected; however, the percentage of secondary sperm defects was higher in the winter. In conclusion, intricate relationships between testosterone concentration, testis volume, semen concentration and total and progressive sperm motility with high levels of breeding activity were observed during the dry season in the winter (June, July, August), followed by a subsequent decline in these activities during the wet season (i.e., summer: December, January, February). There was no seasonal pattern for production of functionally intact and morphologically normal sperm.     

Pulmonary immunoreactive calcitonin in the African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops): Anatomic distribution

The hormone calcitonin, which occurs predominantly within the C cells of the mammalian thyroid gland, is also found within the pulmonary endocrine cells of the epithelium of the tracheobronchial tree. A study was made of the distribution of immunoreactive calcitonin (iCT) in the African green monkey. Using two different region-specific antisera, the total respiratory iCT comprised 2.5% and 5.8% of the total thyroid iCT. The mean concentration of iCT in the right lung exceeded that in the left, and the mean concentration of the right middle or right upper lobe exceeded that of all other lobes. Embryologically, the ultimobranchial bodies contribute their iCT-producing C cell primordia to the thyroid gland near the level of the primitive laryngotracheal cleft and shortly after the early arborization of the bronchial tree. In monkeys and most other mammals, the right main stem bronchus is larger and develops earlier than the left. The data suggest an early migration of cells from the ultimobranchial bodies to the bronchi, eventually giving rise to the iCT-containing pulmonary endocrine cells.     

Reproduction in the vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops): III. The menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycles of 17 multiparous vervet monkeys were studied. Based on estradiol, progesterone, and LH profiles, ovulation is predicted to occur on day 13 of the 32.4-day menstrual cycle. Estradiol peaked on the day preceding the LH peak in 75% of cycles. Average luteal phase length (progesterone greater than 4 nmol/l) was 18 days, with progesterone rising above 4 nmol/l on the day of the LH peak. Vaginal cytology and perianal skin coloration exhibited too much within- and among-animal variability to be reliable indicators of menstrual cycle stages. Uterine biopsies of the proliferative phase were characterized by mild pseudostratification of the columnar epithelium and absence of glandular secretion; in contrast, those of the luteal phase had marked pseudostratification of the tall columnar epithelium with glandular secretions in the lumen. A few follicular-phase samples contained structures such as tortuous uterine glands with secretions. Such structures are more characteristic of the luteal phase. It is suggested that their presence can be explained by incomplete sloughing of the endometrium at menstruation, as this is known to be light or convert in this species.     

Seasonal plasticity in growth and development of the speckled wood butterfly, Pararge aegeria (Satyrinae)

Regulation of growth and development by photoperiod was studied in a population of the speckled wood butterfly, Purarge aegeria L. (Lepidoptera: Satyrinae), from southern Sweden. Individuals were reared in a range of photoperiodic regimes (9L. to 22L) and temperatures (13°C to 21° C). Plasticity was found for important life-history traits- generation time, growth rate and final weight and seasonal regulation of development in response to photoperiod was found to occur at two levels. Purarge aegeria hibernates as a third instar larva or in the pupal stage, cantering one of four major developmental pathways in response to photoperiod: (1) direct development in both the larval and pupal stages, (2) pupal winter diapause with or (3) without a preceding larval summer diapause, or (4) larval winter diapause. In addition to this high-level regulation of individual development, larval growth rate and pupal development rate also appear to be finally regulated by photoperiod within each major pathway. As photoperiods decreased from 22 h to 17 h at 17° C, growth rate among directly developing larvae increased progressively, as was the case for larva? developing according to a univoltine life cycle from 17 h to 14 h. At two photoperiods, 13 h and 16 h (corresponding to shifts between major pathways), both larval and pupal development were extremely variable with the fastest individuals developing directly and the slowest developing with a diapause. This indicates a gradual nature of diapause itself, suggesting that the two level may not he fundamentally different.     

Cytochrome P450-dependent metabolism of l-deprenyl in monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) and C57BL/6 mouse brain microsomal preparations

The aim of the present investigation was to characterize the cytochrome P450 (CYP)-dependent metabolism of l-deprenyl by brain microsomal preparations obtained from two different animal models that have been extensively used in Parkinson's disease studies, namely monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) and C57BL/6 mouse. In monkey brain microsomal fractions, the apparent Km values for methamphetamine formation from l-deprenyl were 67.8 +/- 1.0 and 72.0 +/- 1.6 microm, in the cortex and striatum, respectively. Similarly, for nordeprenyl formation from l-deprenyl, Km values in cortex and striatum were 21.3 +/- 3.2 and 27.3 +/- 4.0 microm, respectively. Both metabolic pathways appear to be more efficient in the cortex than in the striatum as the Vmax for microsomal preparation was lower in the striatum for the formation of both metabolites. The formation rate of l-methamphetamine was up to one order of magnitude greater than that of nordeprenyl. Inhibition analysis of both pathways in monkey brain suggested that l-methamphetamine formation is catalysed by CYP2A and CYP3A, whereas only CYP3A appears to be involved in nordeprenyl formation. With microsomal preparations from whole brain of C57BL/6 mice, the only l-deprenyl metabolite that could be detected was methamphetamine and the Km and Vmax values were similar to those determined in monkey cortex (53.6 +/- 2.9 microm and 33.9 +/- 0.4 pmol/min/mg protein, respectively). 4-Methylpyrazole selectively inhibited methamphetamine formation, suggesting the involvement of CYP2E1. In conclusion, the present study indicates that l-deprenyl is effectively metabolised by CYP-dependent oxidases in the brain, giving rise mainly to the formation of methamphetamine, which has been suggested to play a role in the pharmacological effects of the parent drug. The results also demonstrate that there are differences between species in CYP-dependent metabolism of l-deprenyl.