NO-Donating Aspirin and Aspirin Partially Inhibit Age-Related Atherosclerosis but Not Radiation-Induced Atherosclerosis in ApoE Null Mice

Background

We previously showed that irradiation to the carotid arteries of ApoE^−/− mice accelerated the development of macrophage-rich, inflammatory atherosclerotic lesions, prone to intra-plaque hemorrhage. In this study we investigated the potential of anti-inflammatory and anti-coagulant intervention strategies to inhibit age-related and radiation-induced atherosclerosis.

Methodology/Principal Findings

ApoE^−/− mice were given 0 or 14 Gy to the neck and the carotid arteries and aortic arches were harvested at 4 or 30 weeks after irradiation. Nitric oxide releasing aspirin (NCX 4016, 60 mg/kg/day) or aspirin (ASA, 30 or 300 mg/kg/day) were given continuously in the chow. High dose ASA effectively blocked platelet aggregation, while the low dose ASA or NCX 4016 had no significant effect on platelet aggregation. High dose ASA, but not NCX 4016, inhibited endothelial cell expression of VCAM-1 and thrombomodulin in the carotid arteries at 4 weeks after irradiation; eNOS and ICAM-1 levels were unchanged. After 30 weeks of follow-up, NCX 4016 significantly reduced the total number of lesions and the number of initial macrophage-rich lesions in the carotid arteries of unirradiated mice, but these effects were not seen in the brachiocephalic artery of the aortic arch (BCA). In contrast, high dose ASA lead to a decrease in the number of initial lesions in the BCA, but not in the carotid artery. Both high dose ASA and NCX 4016 reduced the collagen content of advanced lesions and increased the total plaque burden in the BCA of unirradiated mice. At 30 weeks after irradiation, neither NCX 4016 nor ASA significantly influenced the number or distribution of lesions, but high dose ASA lead to formation of collagen-rich “stable” advanced lesions in carotid arteries. The total plaque area of the irradiated BCA was increased after ASA, but the plaque burden was very low compared with the carotid artery.

Conclusions/Significance

The development and characteristics of radiation-induced atherosclerosis varied between different arteries but could not be circumvented by anti-inflammatory and anti-coagulant therapies. This implicates other underlying mechanistic pathways compared to age-related atherosclerosis.     

瑞舒伐他汀对载脂蛋白E基因敲除小鼠动脉粥样硬化中调节性T细胞的影响

目的：探讨瑞舒伐他汀对载脂蛋白E基因敲除（ApoEKO）小鼠动脉粥样硬化中调节性T细胞的影响。方法：首先将30只ApoEKO小鼠建立动脉粥样硬化模型,随机分为高胆固醇饮食组（对照组）、瑞舒伐他汀低剂量组和瑞舒伐他汀高剂量组,各组分别给予蒸馏水或瑞舒伐他汀进行干预8周;将主动脉根部行冰冻切片油红染色,评估粥样硬化斑块面积大小;免疫组织化学法检测主动脉根部粥样硬化斑块处调节性T细胞（Treg）的表达。结果：各组小鼠均有动脉粥样硬化斑块形成,采用瑞舒伐他汀治疗的小鼠动脉粥样硬化斑块的面积明显小于未经治疗的小鼠（P〈0.01）,同时瑞舒伐他汀能明显增加粥样硬化病变处调节性T细胞的表达,且呈现剂效关系。结论：本实验观察到瑞舒伐他汀不仅能减小ApoEKO小鼠的主动脉粥样硬化斑块,且能使调节性T细胞的表达增多,推测瑞舒伐他汀可以通过促进调节性T细胞的生成而起到抑制动脉粥样硬化的作用。     

瑞舒伐他汀对载脂蛋白E 基因敲除小鼠动脉粥样硬化中 调节性T 细胞的影响

目的:探讨瑞舒伐他汀对载脂蛋白E基因敲除(ApoEKO)小鼠动脉粥样硬化中调节性T细胞的影响。方法:首先将30只ApoEKO小鼠建立动脉粥样硬化模型,随机分为高胆固醇饮食组(对照组)、瑞舒伐他汀低剂量组和瑞舒伐他汀高剂量组,各组分别给予蒸馏水或瑞舒伐他汀进行干预8周;将主动脉根部行冰冻切片油红染色,评估粥样硬化斑块面积大小;免疫组织化学法检测主动脉根部粥样硬化斑块处调节性T细胞(Treg)的表达。结果:各组小鼠均有动脉粥样硬化斑块形成,采用瑞舒伐他汀治疗的小鼠动脉粥样硬化斑块的面积明显小于未经治疗的小鼠(P<0.01),同时瑞舒伐他汀能明显增加粥样硬化病变处调节性T细胞的表达,且呈现剂效关系。结论:本实验观察到瑞舒伐他汀不仅能减小ApoEKO小鼠的主动脉粥样硬化斑块,且能使调节性T细胞的表达增多,推测瑞舒伐他汀可以通过促进调节性T细胞的生成而起到抑制动脉粥样硬化的作用。     

Gremlin-1 Is an Inhibitor of Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor and Attenuates Atherosclerotic Plaque Growth in ApoE?/? Mice

Monocyte infiltration and macrophage formation are pivotal steps in atherosclerosis and plaque vulnerability. Gremlin-1/Drm is crucial in embryo-/organogenesis and has been shown to be expressed in the adult organism at sites of arterial injury and to inhibit monocyte migration. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate and characterize the role of Gremlin-1 in atherosclerosis. Here we report that Gremlin-1 is highly expressed primarily by monocytes/macrophages in aortic atherosclerotic lesions of ApoE^−/− mice and is secreted from activated monocytes and during macrophage development in vitro. Gremlin-1 reduces macrophage formation by inhibiting macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), a cytokine critically involved in atherosclerotic plaque progression and vulnerability. Gremlin-1 binds with high affinity to MIF (K_D = 54 nm), as evidenced by surface plasmon resonance analysis and co-immunoprecipitation, and reduces MIF-induced release of TNF-α from macrophages. Treatment of ApoE^−/− mice with a dimeric recombinant fusion protein, _mGremlin1-Fc, but not with equimolar control Fc or inactivated _mGremlin1-Fc, reduced TNF-α expression, the content of monocytes/macrophages of atherosclerotic lesions, and attenuated atheroprogression. The present data disclose that Gremlin-1 is an endogenous antagonist of MIF and define a role for Gremlin-1/MIF interaction in atherosclerosis.     

Chemokine receptor CCR1 disruption in bone marrow cells enhances atherosclerotic lesion development and inflammation in mice

Several chemokines or chemokine receptors are involved in atherogenesis. CCR1 is expressed by macrophages and lymphocytes, two major cell types involved in the progression of atherosclerosis, and binds to lesion-expressed ligands. We examined the direct role of the blood-borne chemokine receptor CCR1 in atherosclerosis by transplanting bone marrow cells from either CCR1+/+ or CCR1-/- mice into low-density lipoprotein-receptor (LDLr)-deficient mice. After exposure to an atherogenic diet for 8 weeks, no differences in fatty streak size or composition were detected between the 2 groups. After 12 weeks of atherogenic diet, however, an unexpected 70% increase in atherosclerotic lesion size in the thoracic aorta was detected in the CCR1-/- mice, accompanied by a 37% increase in the aortic sinus lesion area. CCR1-/- mice showed enhanced basal and concanavalin A-stimulated IFN-gamma production by spleen T cells and enhanced plaque inflammation. In conclusion, blood-borne CCR1 alters the immuno-inflammatory response in atherosclerosis and prevents excessive plaque growth and inflammation.     

Low-dose radiation exposure and atherosclerosis in ApoE⁻/⁻ mice

The hypothesis that single low-dose exposures (0.025-0.5 Gy) to low-LET radiation given at either high (about 150 mGy/min) or low (1 mGy/min) dose rate would promote aortic atherosclerosis was tested in female C57BL/6J mice genetically predisposed to this disease (ApoE?/?). Mice were exposed either at an early stage of disease (2 months of age) and examined 3 or 6 months later or at a late stage of disease (8 months of age) and examined 2 or 4 months later. Changes in aortic lesion frequency, size and severity as well as total serum cholesterol levels and the uptake of lesion lipids by lesion-associated macrophages were assessed. Statistically significant changes in each of these measures were observed, depending on dose, dose rate and disease stage. In all cases, the results were distinctly non-linear with dose, with maximum effects tending to occur at 25 or 50 mGy. In general, low doses given at low dose rate during either early- or late-stage disease were protective, slowing the progression of the disease by one or more of these measures. Most effects appeared and persisted for months after the single exposures, but some were ultimately transitory. In contrast to exposure at low dose rate, high-dose-rate exposure during early-stage disease produced both protective and detrimental effects, suggesting that low doses may influence this disease by more than one mechanism and that dose rate is an important parameter. These results contrast with the known, generally detrimental effects of high doses on the progression of this disease in the same mice and in humans, suggesting that a linear extrapolation of the known increased risk from high doses to low doses is not appropriate.     

Chronic Over-Expression of Heat Shock Protein 27 Attenuates Atherogenesis and Enhances Plaque Remodeling: A Combined Histological and Mechanical Assessment of Aortic Lesions

Aims

Expression of Heat Shock Protein-27 (HSP27) is reduced in human coronary atherosclerosis. Over-expression of HSP27 is protective against the early formation of lesions in atherosclerosis-prone apoE^−/− mice (apoE^−/−HSP27^o/e) - however, only in females. We now seek to determine if chronic HSP27 over-expression is protective in a model of advanced atherosclerosis in both male and female apoE^−/− mice.

Methods and Results

After 12 weeks on a high fat diet, serum HSP27 levels rose more than 16-fold in male and female apoE^−/−HSP27^o/e mice, although females had higher levels than males. Relative to apoE^−/− mice, female apoE^−/−HSP27^o/e mice showed reductions in aortic lesion area of 35% for en face and 30% for cross-sectional sinus tissue sections – with the same parameters reduced by 21% and 24% in male cohorts; respectively. Aortic plaques from apoE^−/−HSP27^o/e mice showed almost 50% reductions in the area occupied by cholesterol clefts and free cholesterol, with fewer macrophages and reduced apoptosis but greater intimal smooth muscle cell and collagen content. The analysis of the aortic mechanical properties showed increased vessel stiffness in apoE^−/−HSP27^o/e mice (41% in female, 34% in male) compare to apoE^−/− counterparts.

Conclusions

Chronic over-expression of HSP27 is atheroprotective in both sexes and coincides with reductions in lesion cholesterol accumulation as well as favorable plaque remodeling. These data provide new clues as to how HSP27 may improve not only the composition of atherosclerotic lesions but potentially their stability and resilience to plaque rupture.     

Amelioration of Hyperglycemia with a Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitor Prevents Macrophage-Driven Atherosclerosis through Macrophage Foam Cell Formation Suppression in Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetic Mice

Direct associations between hyperglycemia and atherosclerosis remain unclear. We investigated the association between the amelioration of glycemia by sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) and macrophage-driven atherosclerosis in diabetic mice. We administered dapagliflozin or ipragliflozin (1.0 mg/kg/day) for 4-weeks to apolipoprotein E-null (Apoe ^−/−) mice, streptozotocin-induced diabetic Apoe ^−/− mice, and diabetic db/db mice. We then determined aortic atherosclerosis, oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-induced foam cell formation, and related gene expression in exudate peritoneal macrophages. Dapagliflozin substantially decreased glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and glucose tolerance without affecting body weight, blood pressure, plasma insulin, and lipids in diabetic Apoe ^−/− mice. Aortic atherosclerotic lesions, atheromatous plaque size, and macrophage infiltration in the aortic root increased in diabetic Apoe ^−/− mice; dapagliflozin attenuated these changes by 33%, 27%, and 20%, respectively. Atherosclerotic lesions or foam cell formation highly correlated with HbA1c. Dapagliflozin did not affect atherosclerosis or plasma parameters in non-diabetic Apoe ^−/− mice. In db/db mice, foam cell formation increased by 4-fold compared with C57/BL6 mice, whereas ipragliflozin decreased it by 31%. Foam cell formation exhibited a strong correlation with HbA1c. Gene expression of lectin-like ox-LDL receptor-1 and acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase 1 was upregulated, whereas that of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 was downregulated in the peritoneal macrophages of both types of diabetic mice. SGLT2i normalized these gene expressions. Our study is the first to demonstrate that SGLT2i exerts anti-atherogenic effects by pure glucose lowering independent of insulin action in diabetic mice through suppressing macrophage foam cell formation, suggesting that foam cell formation is highly sensitive to glycemia ex vivo.     

Cannabinoid receptor 2 signaling does not modulate atherogenesis in mice

Background

Strong evidence supports a protective role of the cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB₂) in inflammation and atherosclerosis. However, direct proof of its involvement in lesion formation is lacking. Therefore, the present study aimed to characterize the role of the CB₂ receptor in Murine atherogenesis.

Methods and Findings

Low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient (LDLR^−/−) mice subjected to intraperitoneal injections of the selective CB₂ receptor agonist JWH-133 or vehicle three times per week consumed high cholesterol diet (HCD) for 16 weeks. Surprisingly, intimal lesion size did not differ between both groups in sections of the aortic roots and arches, suggesting that CB₂ activation does not modulate atherogenesis in vivo. Plaque content of lipids, macrophages, smooth muscle cells, T cells, and collagen were also similar between both groups. Moreover, CB₂ ^−/−/LDLR^−/− mice developed lesions of similar size containing more macrophages and lipids but similar amounts of smooth muscle cells and collagen fibers compared with CB₂ ^+/+/LDLR^−/− controls. While JWH-133 treatment reduced intraperitoneal macrophage accumulation in thioglycollate-illicited peritonitis, neither genetic deficiency nor pharmacologic activation of the CB₂ receptor altered inflammatory cytokine expression in vivo or inflammatory cell adhesion in the flow chamber in vitro.

Conclusion

Our study demonstrates that both activation and deletion of the CB₂ receptor do not relevantly modulate atherogenesis in mice. Our data do not challenge the multiple reports involving CB₂ in other inflammatory processes. However, in the context of atherosclerosis, CB₂ does not appear to be a suitable therapeutic target for reduction of the atherosclerotic plaque.     

Overexpression of TGF-ß1 in macrophages reduces and stabilizes atherosclerotic plaques in ApoE-deficient mice

Although macrophages represent the hallmark of both human and murine atherosclerotic lesions and have been shown to express TGF-ß1 (transforming growth factor β1) and its receptors, it has so far not been experimentally addressed whether the pleiotropic cytokine TGF-ß1 may influence atherogenesis by a macrophage specific mechanism. We developed transgenic mice with macrophage specific TGF-ß1 overexpression, crossed the transgenics to the atherosclerotic ApoE (apolipoprotein E) knock-out strain and quantitatively analyzed both atherosclerotic lesion development and composition of the resulting double mutants. Compared with control ApoE^−/− mice, animals with macrophage specific TGF-ß1 overexpression developed significantly less atherosclerosis after 24 weeks on the WTD (Western type diet) as indicated by aortic plaque area en face (p<0.05). Reduced atherosclerotic lesion development was associated with significantly less macrophages (p<0.05 after both 8 and 24 weeks on the WTD), significantly more smooth muscle cells (SMCs; p<0.01 after 24 weeks on the WTD), significantly more collagen (p<0.01 and p<0.05 after 16 and 24 weeks on the WTD, respectively) without significant differences of inner aortic arch intima thickness or the number of total macrophages in the mice pointing to a plaque stabilizing effect of macrophage-specific TGF-ß1 overexpression. Our data shows that macrophage specific TGF-ß1 overexpression reduces and stabilizes atherosclerotic plaques in ApoE-deficient mice.     

Enhanced Sensitivity to Low Dose Irradiation of ApoE?/? Mice Mediated by Early Pro-Inflammatory Profile and Delayed Activation of the TGFβ1 Cascade Involved in Fibrogenesis

Aim

Investigating long-term cardiac effects of low doses of ionizing radiation is highly relevant in the context of interventional cardiology and radiotherapy. Epidemiological data report that low doses of irradiation to the heart can result in significant increase in the cardiovascular mortality by yet unknown mechanisms. In addition co-morbidity factor such as hypertension or/and atherosclerosis can enhance cardiac complications. Therefore, we explored the mechanisms that lead to long-term cardiac remodelling and investigated the interaction of radiation-induced damage to heart and cardiovascular systems with atherosclerosis, using wild-type and ApoE-deficient mice.

Methods and Results

ApoE−/− and wild-type mice were locally irradiated to the heart at 0, 0.2 and 2 Gy (RX). Twenty, 40 and 60 weeks post-irradiation, echocardiography were performed and hearts were collected for cardiomyocyte isolation, histopathological analysis, study of inflammatory infiltration and fibrosis deposition. Common and strain-specific pathogenic pathways were found. Significant alteration of left ventricular function (eccentric hypertrophy) occurred in both strains of mice. Low dose irradiation (0.2 Gy) induced premature death in ApoE−/− mice (47% died at 20 weeks). Acute inflammatory infiltrate was observed in scarring areas with accumulation of M1-macrophages and secretion of IL-6. Increased expression of the fibrogenic factors (TGF-β1 and PAI-1) was measured earlier in cardiomyocytes isolated from ApoE−/− than in wt animals.

Conclusion

The present study shows that cardiac exposure to low dose of ionizing radiation induce significant physiological, histopathological, cellular and molecular alterations in irradiated heart with mild functional impairment. Atherosclerotic predisposition precipitated cardiac damage induced by low doses with an early pro-inflammatory polarization of macrophages.     

Attenuated atherosclerosis upon IL-17R signaling disruption in LDLr deficient mice

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disease characterized by the influx of macrophages and T cells and IL-17 may connect innate and adaptive immune responses involved in atherogenesis. We investigated the role of IL-17 receptor signaling in atherosclerosis and transplanted LDLr deficient recipient mice with IL-17R deficient bone marrow. Induction of atherosclerosis by Western-type diet induced a 46% reduction in lesion size in the aortic root and the plaque composition revealed no significant changes in collagen content and neutrophil counts, but a reduction in mast cell number and an increase in macrophage number. In addition, we observed a decrease in anti-oxLDL antibodies of the IgG class upon IL-17R BMT, while introduction of IL-17R deficient bone marrow resulted in a reduced IL-6 production and an increased IL-10 production.In conclusion, signaling via the IL-17 receptor in bone marrow derived cells enhances the process of atherosclerosis.     

Activation of farnesoid X receptor prevents atherosclerotic lesion formation in LDLR−/− and apoE−/− mice

The role of farnesoid X receptor (FXR) in the development of atherosclerosis has been unclear. Here, LDL receptor (LDLR^−/−) or apolipoprotein E (apoE^−/−) female or male mice were fed a Western diet and treated with a potent synthetic FXR agonist, WAY-362450. Activation of FXR blocked diet-induced hypertriglyceridemia and elevations of non-HDL cholesterol and produced a near complete inhibition of aortic lesion formation. WAY-362450 also induced small heterodimer partner (SHP) expression and repressed cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) and sterol 12 α-hydroxylase (CYP8B1) expression. To determine if SHP was essential for these protective activities, LDLR^−/−SHP^−/− and apoE^−/−SHP^−/− mice were similarly treated with WAY-362450. Surprisingly, a notable sex difference was observed in these mice. In male LDLR^−/−SHP^−/− or apoE^−/−SHP^−/− mice, WAY-362450 still repressed CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 expression by 10-fold and still strongly reduced non-HDL cholesterol levels and aortic lesion area. In contrast, in the female LDLR^−/−SHP^−/− or apoE^−/−SHP^−/− mice, WAY-362450 only slightly repressed CYP7A1 and CYP8B1 expression and did not reduce non-HDL cholesterol or aortic lesion size. WAY-362450 inhibition of hypertriglyceridemia remained intact in LDLR^−/− or apoE^−/− mice lacking SHP of both sexes. These results suggest that activation of FXR protects against atherosclerosis in the mouse, and this protective effect correlates with repression of bile acid synthetic genes, with mechanistic differences between male and female mice.     

PI3K regulates the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in atherosclerosis through part-dependent AKT signaling pathway

PI3K is a downstream target of multiple cell-surface receptors, which acts as a crucial modulator of both cell polarization and survival. PI3K/AKT signaling pathway is commonly involved in cancer, atherosclerosis, and other diseases. However, its role in cardiovascular diseases, especially in atherosclerosis, remains to be further investigated. To determine the effect of PI3K/AKT signaling pathway on cellular inflammatory response and oxidative stress, PI3K inhibitor (GDC0941) and AKT inhibitor (MK2206) were used. First, THP-1 cells were incubated with ox-LDL (100 µg/ml) to establish an in vitro atherosclerosis model. The inflammatory factors and foam cell formation were then evaluated to ascertain and compare the effects of PI3K and AKT inhibition. ApoE^−/− mice fed a high-fat diet were used to assess the roles of PI3K and AKT in aortic plaque formation. Our results showed that the inhibition of PI3K or AKT could suppress the activation of NLRP3, decreased the expression levels of p-p65/p65 and reduced the production of mitochondrial reaction oxygen species (mitoROS) in THP-1 cells. Inhibition of PI3K or AKT could also reduced atherosclerosis lesion and plaque area, and decreased the levels of NLRP3 and IL-1β in ApoE^−/− mice. The effect of PI3K inhibition was more significant than AKT. Therefore, PI3K inhibition can retard the progress of atherosclerosis. Besides, there may be other AKT-independent pathways that regulate the formation of atherosclerosis.     

Histamine H3 Receptor-Mediated Signaling Protects Mice from Cerebral Malaria

Background

Histamine is a biogenic amine that has been shown to contribute to several pathological conditions, such as allergic conditions, experimental encephalomyelitis, and malaria. In humans, as well as in murine models of malaria, increased plasma levels of histamine are associated with severity of infection. We reported recently that histamine plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of experimental cerebral malaria (CM) in mice infected with Plasmodium berghei ANKA. Histamine exerts its biological effects through four different receptors designated H1R, H2R, H3R, and H4R.

Principal Findings

In the present work, we explored the role of histamine signaling via the histamine H3 receptor (H3R) in the pathogenesis of murine CM. We observed that the lack of H3R expression (H3R^−/− mice) accelerates the onset of CM and this was correlated with enhanced brain pathology and earlier and more pronounced loss of blood brain barrier integrity than in wild type mice. Additionally tele-methylhistamine, the major histamine metabolite in the brain, that was initially present at a higher level in the brain of H3R^−/− mice was depleted more quickly post-infection in H3R^−/− mice as compared to wild-type counterparts.

Conclusions

Our data suggest that histamine regulation through the H3R in the brain suppresses the development of CM. Thus modulating histamine signaling in the central nervous system, in combination with standard therapies, may represent a novel strategy to reduce the risk of progression to cerebral malaria.     

Elevated expression of phospholipid transfer protein in bone marrow derived cells causes atherosclerosis

Background

Phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) is expressed by various cell types. In plasma, it is associated with high density lipoproteins (HDL). Elevated levels of PLTP in transgenic mice result in decreased HDL and increased atherosclerosis. PLTP is present in human atherosclerotic lesions, where it seems to be macrophage derived. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the atherogenic potential of macrophage derived PLTP.

Methods and Findings

Here we show that macrophages from human PLTP transgenic mice secrete active PLTP. Subsequently, we performed bone marrow transplantations using either wild type mice (PLTPwt/wt), hemizygous PLTP transgenic mice (huPLTPtg/wt) or homozygous PLTP transgenic mice (huPLTPtg/tg) as donors and low density lipoprotein receptor deficient mice (LDLR−/−) as acceptors, in order to establish the role of PLTP expressed by bone marrow derived cells in diet-induced atherogenesis. Atherosclerosis was increased in the huPLTPtg/wt→LDLR−/− mice (2.3-fold) and even further in the huPLTPtg/tg→LDLR−/− mice (4.5-fold) compared with the control PLTPwt/wt→LDLR−/− mice (both P<0.001). Plasma PLTP activity levels and non-HDL cholesterol were increased and HDL cholesterol decreased compared with controls (all P<0.01). PLTP was present in atherosclerotic plaques in the mice as demonstrated by immunohistochemistry and appears to co-localize with macrophages. Isolated macrophages from PLTP transgenic mice do not show differences in cholesterol efflux or in cytokine production. Lipopolysaccharide activation of macrophages results in increased production of PLTP. This effect was strongly amplified in PLTP transgenic macrophages.

Conclusions

We conclude that PLTP expression by bone marrow derived cells results in atherogenic effects on plasma lipids, increased PLTP activity, high local PLTP protein levels in the atherosclerotic lesions and increased atherosclerotic lesion size.     

A Salmon Protein Hydrolysate Exerts Lipid-Independent Anti-Atherosclerotic Activity in ApoE-Deficient Mice

Fish consumption is considered health beneficial as it decreases cardiovascular disease (CVD)-risk through effects on plasma lipids and inflammation. We investigated a salmon protein hydrolysate (SPH) that is hypothesized to influence lipid metabolism and to have anti-atherosclerotic and anti-inflammatory properties. 24 female apolipoprotein (apo) E^−/− mice were divided into two groups and fed a high-fat diet with or without 5% (w/w) SPH for 12 weeks. The atherosclerotic plaque area in aortic sinus and arch, plasma lipid profile, fatty acid composition, hepatic enzyme activities and gene expression were determined. A significantly reduced atherosclerotic plaque area in the aortic arch and aortic sinus was found in the 12 apoE^−/− mice fed 5% SPH for 12 weeks compared to the 12 casein-fed control mice. Immunohistochemical characterization of atherosclerotic lesions in aortic sinus displayed no differences in plaque composition between mice fed SPH compared to controls. However, reduced mRNA level of Icam1 in the aortic arch was found. The plasma content of arachidonic acid (C20∶4n-6) and oleic acid (C18∶1n-9) were increased and decreased, respectively. SPH-feeding decreased the plasma concentration of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and GM-CSF, whereas plasma cholesterol and triacylglycerols (TAG) were unchanged, accompanied by unchanged mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation and acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT)-activity. These data show that a 5% (w/w) SPH diet reduces atherosclerosis in apoE^−/− mice and attenuate risk factors related to atherosclerotic disorders by acting both at vascular and systemic levels, and not directly related to changes in plasma lipids or fatty acids.     

Impact of Glutathione Peroxidase-1 Deficiency on Macrophage Foam Cell Formation and Proliferation: Implications for Atherogenesis

Clinical and experimental evidence suggests a protective role for the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPx-1) in the atherogenic process. GPx-1 deficiency accelerates atherosclerosis and increases lesion cellularity in ApoE^−/− mice. However, the distribution of GPx-1 within the atherosclerotic lesion as well as the mechanisms leading to increased macrophage numbers in lesions is still unknown. Accordingly, the aims of the present study were (1) to analyze which cells express GPx-1 within atherosclerotic lesions and (2) to determine whether a lack of GPx-1 affects macrophage foam cell formation and cellular proliferation. Both in situ-hybridization and immunohistochemistry of lesions of the aortic sinus of ApoE^−/− mice after 12 weeks on a Western type diet revealed that both macrophages and – even though to a less extent – smooth muscle cells contribute to GPx-1 expression within atherosclerotic lesions. In isolated mouse peritoneal macrophages differentiated for 3 days with macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (MCSF), GPx-1 deficiency increased oxidized low density-lipoprotein (oxLDL) induced foam cell formation and led to increased proliferative activity of peritoneal macrophages. The MCSF- and oxLDL-induced proliferation of peritoneal macrophages from GPx-1^−/−ApoE^−/− mice was mediated by the p44/42 MAPK (p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase), namely ERK1/2 (extracellular-signal regulated kinase 1/2), signaling pathway as demonstrated by ERK1/2 signaling pathways inhibitors, Western blots on cell lysates with primary antibodies against total and phosphorylated ERK1/2, MEK1/2 (mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase 1/2), p90RSK (p90 ribosomal s6 kinase), p38 MAPK and SAPK/JNK (stress-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinase), and immunohistochemistry of mice atherosclerotic lesions with antibodies against phosphorylated ERK1/2, MEK1/2 and p90RSK. Representative effects of GPx-1 deficiency on both macrophage proliferation and MAPK phosphorylation could be abolished by the GPx mimic ebselen. The present study demonstrates that GPx-1 deficiency has a significant impact on macrophage foam cell formation and proliferation via the p44/42 MAPK (ERK1/2) pathway encouraging further studies on new therapeutic strategies against atherosclerosis.