A Prospective Study: Current Problems in Radiotherapy for Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma in Yogyakarta,Indonesia

Introduction

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) has a high incidence in Indonesia. Previous study in Yogyakarta revealed a complete response of 29% and a median overall survival of less than 2 years. These poor treatment outcome are influenced by the long diagnose-to-treatment interval to radiotherapy (DTI) and the extended overall treatment time of radiotherapy (OTT). This study reveals insight why the OTT and DTI are prolonged.

Method

All patients treated with curative intent radiotherapy for NPC between July 2011 until October 2012 were included. During radiotherapy a daily diary was kept, containing information on DTI, missed radiotherapy days, the reason for missing and length of OTT.

Results

Sixty-eight patients were included. The median DTI was 106 days (95% CI: 98−170). Fifty-nine patients (87%) finished the treatment. The median OTT for radiotherapy was 57 days (95% CI: 57–65). The main reason for missing days was an inoperative radiotherapy machine (36%). Other reasons were patient’s poor condition (21%), public holidays (14%), adjustment of the radiation field (7%), power blackout (3%), inoperative treatment planning system (2%) and patient related reasons (9%). Patient’s insurance type was correlated to DTI in disadvantage for poor people.

Conclusion

Yogyakarta has a lack of sufficient radiotherapy units which causes a delay of 3–4 months, besides the OTT is extended by 10–12 days. This influences treatment outcome to a great extend. The best solution would be creating sufficient radiotherapy units and better management in health care for poor patients. The growing economy in Indonesia will expectantly in time enable these solutions, but in the meantime solutions are needed. Solutions can consist of radiation outside office hours, better maintenance of the facilities and more effort from patient, doctor and nurse to finish treatment in time. These results are valuable when improving cancer care in low and middle income countries.     

Prognostic Nomogram for Patients with Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma after Intensity-Modulated Radiotherapy

This study was aimed to define possible predictors of overall survival in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). Patients were treated with intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), to establish an effective prognostic nomogram that could provide individualized predictions of treatment outcome in this setting. We reviewed the records of 533 patients with non-metastatic NPC who underwent IMRT with or without concurrent chemotherapy at the Department of Radiation Oncology of Sun Yat-Sen University from 2002 to 2009; none of these patients received induction or adjuvant chemotherapy. These data sets were used to construct a nomogram based on Cox regression. Nomogram performance was determined via a concordance index (C-index) and a calibration curve which was compared with the TNM staging system for NPC. The results were validated in an external cohort of 442 patients from the Department of Radiation Oncology of Wenzhou Medical College who were treated during the same period. Results showed that the greatest influence on survival were primary gross tumor volume, age, tumor stage and nodal stage (2002 Union for International Cancer Control [UICC] staging system), which were selected into the nomogram. The C-index of the nomogram for predicting survival was 0.748 (95%CI, 0.704–0.785), which was statistically higher than that of TNM staging system (0.684, P<0.001). The calibration curve exhibited agreement between nomogram-predicted and the actual observed probabilities for overall survival. In the validation cohort, the nomogram discrimination was superior to the TNM staging system (C-index: 0.768 vs 0.721; P = 0.026). In conclusion, the nomogram proposed in this study resulted in more-accurate prognostic prediction for patients with NPC after IMRT and compared favorably to the TNM staging system; this individualized information will aid in patient counseling and may be used for de-escalation trials in the future.     

Multimodality Treatment May Improve the Survival Rate of Patients with Metastatic Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma with Good Performance Status

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the benefit of chemotherapy, combined with palliative radiotherapy (PRT) and other local treatments to the metastatic sites, for patients with metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) who had a performance status 0–2. We conducted a retrospective review of available data from 197 biopsy-proven NPC patients who developed metastasis after their initial definitive treatment. These patients were grouped into three categories according to the different treatment paths that were followed: the best supportive care (64 patients), chemotherapy alone (55 patients), and multimodality treatment with chemotherapy combined with PRT and other local treatments to metastatic sites (78 patients). The 2-year metastatic survival rate of patients in the multimodality treatment group was 57.7%, which was significantly better than that of the patients in both the chemotherapy alone group and the best supportive care group (32.7% and 1.6%, respectively). The independent significant factors affecting survival were the disease-free interval prior to the detection of metastatic disease, the number of metastases, the number of chemotherapy cycles and the biological effective dose of PRT. In conclusion, multimodality treatment may improve survival of select patients with recurrent NPC with distant metastases.     

Enteropathogens associated with acute diarrhea in community and hospital patients in Jakarta,Indonesia

The prevalence of bacteria, parasite and viral pathogens in 3875 patients with diarrhea in community and hospital settings from March 1997 through August 1999 in Jakarta, Indonesia was determined using routine bacteriology and molecular assay techniques. Bacterial pathogens isolated from hospital patients were, in decreasing frequency, Vibrio cholerae O1, Shigella flexneri, Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter jejuni, while S. flexneri, V. cholerae O1, Salmonella spp. and C. jejuni were isolated from the community patients. V. cholerae O1 was isolated more frequently (P<0.005) from the hospital patients than the community patients. Overall, bacterial pathogens were isolated from 538 of 3875 (14%) enrolled cases of diarrhea. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli were detected in 218 (18%) of 1244 rectal swabs. A small percentage of enterohemorrhagic E. coli (1%) and of Clostridium difficile (1.3%) was detected. Parasitic examination of 389 samples resulted in 43 (11%) positives comprising Ascaris lumbricoides (1.5%), Blastocystis hominis (5.7%), Giardia lamblia (0.8%), Trichuris trichiura (2.1%) and Endolimax nana (0.5%). Rotavirus (37.5%), adenovirus (3.3%) and Norwalk-like virus (17.6%) were also detected. Antimicrobial resistance was observed among some isolates. Bacterial isolates were susceptible to quinolones, with the exception of some isolates of C. jejuni which were resistant to ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid and norfloxacin. Data obtained from this community- and hospital-based study will enable the Indonesian Ministry of Health to plan relevant studies on diarrheal diseases in the archipelago.     

血管内皮生长因子在鼻咽癌病情监测中的意义

目的:探讨鼻咽癌患者治疗前后血清血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)水平的变化及其临床意义。方法:ELISA法对75例鼻咽癌患者在治疗前、治疗结束后1个月和治疗后出现局部复发或远处转移者,同步检测40例慢性鼻咽炎患者及30名正常人血清VEGF水平。结果:鼻咽癌组Ⅲ～Ⅳ期患者治疗前血清VEGF水平均显著高于Ⅰ～Ⅱ期患者(P<0.01);与治疗前比较,Ⅰ～Ⅱ期、Ⅲ～Ⅳ期患者治疗后血清VEGF水平均显著下降(P<0.01);治疗后,Ⅰ～Ⅱ期与Ⅲ～Ⅳ期患者血清VEGF水平比较,差异无统计学意义;与慢性鼻咽组及正常对照组比较,鼻咽癌复发组患者治疗前、后的血清VEGF水平明显升高(P<0.01);与治疗前组比较,鼻咽癌患者治疗后的血清VEGF水平明显下降(P<0.01),而复发组治疗后明显上升(P<0.01)。结论:血清VEGF水平可作为鼻咽癌患者治疗前后病情监测一个新的检测指标。     

Predictors of the Extent of Carotid Atherosclerosis in Patients Treated with Radiotherapy for Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Objective

To determine the predictors of the extent of carotid atherosclerosis in patients treated with radiotherapy (RT) for nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC).

Methods

The present study investigated 129 post-RT NPC patients. Carotid atherosclerotic parameters, such as carotid intima-media thickness, carotid arterial stiffness and carotid plaque burden (plaque score, the presence of plaque and ≥50% stenosis) were assessed using ultrasonography. The association between carotid atherosclerotic parameters and nine potential predictors, including age, gender, post-RT duration, radiation dose, chemotherapy, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and smoking, were determined using multiple regression. The cutoff values of age, post-RT duration and number of cardiovascular risk factors for the presence of carotid plaque or ≥50% carotid stenosis were analyzed using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. Multiple testing was corrected using Benjamini-Hochberg false discovery rate.

Results

Age, post-RT duration and number of cardiovascular risk factors were significantly associated with carotid plaque burden (corrected P value, P_cor<0.05). Age of 44.5 years (sensitivity = 99.2% and specificity = 50%, P_cor<0.01) and post-RT duration of 8.5 years (sensitivity = 75.7% and specificity = 64.3%, P_cor<0.001) were the cutoff values for detecting carotid plaque, while post-RT duration of 13.5 years (sensitivity = 66.7% and specificity = 71.6%, P_cor<0.001) and 1.5 cardiovascular risk factors (sensitivity = 40.7% and specificity = 84.3%, P_cor<0.05) were the cutoff values for screening ≥50% carotid stenosis.

Conclusions

Age, post-RT duration and number of cardiovascular risk factors are significant predictors of carotid atherosclerosis in post-RT NPC patients. Post-RT NPC patients, who are at least 45 years old, with post-RT duration of 9 years or above, and/or have ≥2 cardiovascular risk factors, are more susceptible to carotid atherosclerosis.     

Prognostic Value of Cavernous Sinus Invasion in Patients with Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Treated with Intensity-Modulated Radiotherapy

Purpose

To investigate the prognostic value of cavernoussinus invasion (CSI) in patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) treated with intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT).

Patients and Methods

Retrospective review of data from 1,087 patients with biopsy-proven, non-metastatic NPC. All patients were diagnosed using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans and received IMRT as the primary treatment.

Results

The incidence of cavernoussinus invasion in this cohort was 12.1%. In univariate analysis, 5-year overall survival (OS) (70.6% vs. 88.5%, P < 0.001) and distant metastasis-free survival (DMFS) (71.4% vs. 87.7%, P < 0.001), but not locoregional relapse-free survival (LRFS) (93.9% vs. 93.7%, P = 0.341), were significantly different between patients with and without cavernoussinus invasion. In the T4 subgroup, the 5-year OS, DMFS, and LRFS of patients with and without cavernoussinus extension were 70.6% vs. 81.9% (P = 0.011), 71.4% vs. 84.1% (P = 0.011), and 91.2% vs. 89.7% (P = 0.501), respectively. In multivariate analysis, cavernoussinus invasion was an independent prognostic factor for poorer OS (HR = 1.782; P = 0.013) and DMFS (HR = 1.771; P = 0.016), but not LRFS (HR = 0.632; P = 0.294). In patients with lymph node metastasis, the DMFS rates of patients with and without cavernoussinus invasion were significantly different (P < 0.001). Preliminaryanalysis indicated that neoadjuvant chemotherapy led to better DMFS and OS in patients with cavernoussinus invasion than concurrent chemotherapy or radiotherapy alone; however, the differences were not significant.

Conclusions

In the IMRT era, cavernoussinus invasion remains a prognostic factor for poor DMFS and OS in NPC, even in patients with T4 disease.     

Short-term effect of different teaching methods on nasopharyngeal carcinoma for general practitioners in Jakarta, Indonesia

In Indonesia, Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma (NPC) is the most frequent cancer of the head and neck region. At first presentation in the hospital most patients already have advanced NPC. Our previous study showed that general practitioners (GPs) working in Yogyakarta, Indonesia lack the knowledge necessary for early detection of NPC. By providing training on early symptoms of NPC we hope that the diagnosis and referral will occur at an earlier stage. Here we assess the current NPC knowledge levels of GPs in Jakarta, evaluate improvement after training, compare the effectiveness of two training formats, and estimate the loss of recall over a two week period.

Methods

Two Indonesian GPs visited 31 Primary Health Care Centres (PHCCs) and provided a lecture on NPC. The alternative format consisted of a symposium at the Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta, presented by local head and neck surgeons, with all GPs in the region being invited. To evaluate the effect of both formats a questionnaire was conducted before and after.

Results

The lecture in the PHCCs was attended by 130 GPs. Sixty-six GPs attended the training in the university hospital and 40 GPs attended both. Pre training the NPC knowledge level was poor with an average of 1.6 symptoms being correctly identified out of a potential maximum of 12, this was increased to 4.9 post training (p<0.0001). GPs attending the PHCC course recorded a greater increase in correct symptoms than those attending the symposium (3.8 vs. 2.8; p = 0.01). After a two week period the knowledge levels had declined slightly from 5.5 correctly identified symptoms to 4.2 (p = 0.25).

Conclusion

These results confirm our findings regarding GPs insufficient knowledge of NPC. Lectures in the PHCC and a symposium have both been proven to be effective training tools in the education of GPs.     

Endostar Combined with Gemcitabine and Cisplatin Chemotherapy for Patients with Metastatic Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma: an Update

OBJECTIVE: A previous phase-2 trial to assess the addition of Endostar to gemcitabine and cisplatin (GC) chemotherapy showed that it improves prognosis in metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma (M-NPC) but the study cohort was small. We wished to update that phase-2 trial by enrolling an additional 44 patients and to assess the benefit of Endostar+GC chemotherapy. METHODS: An analysis of 72 M-NPC patients treated between July 2010 and November 2016 was done. The treatment regimen was a combination of gemcitabine (1,000 mg/m²) on days 1 and 8, cisplatin (80 mg/m²) on day 1, and Endostar (15 mg/day) from day 1 to day 14 of a 21-day cycle for ≥2 cycles. The acute toxic effects and therapeutic efficacy were analyzed. RESULTS: The response rate was 77.8%. The median progression-free and overall survivals were 12 and 19.5 months, respectively. A total of 329 cycles of GC and 288 cycles of Endostar were delivered to 72 patients, with the median number of four (range, 2–10) cycles administered per patient. The main grade-3/4 hematologic toxicities were leukopenia (54.1%) and neutropenia (59.8%). The number of non-hematologic adverse events was minimal. The regimen was well-tolerated. CONCLUSIONS: Endostar+GC chemotherapy is an effective, well-tolerated regimen for M-NPC.     

Prognostic Factors and Survival in Patients with Radiation-Related Second Malignant Neoplasms Following Radiotherapy for Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Purpose

To analyze the clinicopathological characteristics, treatment modalities, and potential prognostic factors of radiation-related second malignant neoplasms (SMNs) in a large group of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cases.

Methods and Materials

Institutional electronic medical records of 39,118 patients with NPC treated by definitive radiotherapy between February 1964 and December 2003 were reviewed. A total of 247 patients with confirmed SMN attributable to radiotherapy were included.

Results

Median latency between radiotherapy for NPC and the diagnosis of SMN was 9.5 years (range, 3.1–36.8 years). Squamous cell carcinoma was the most common histologic type, followed by fibrosarcoma and adenocarcinoma. Median progression-free survival and overall survival (OS) of the 235 patients who underwent treatment were 17.3 months and 28.5 months, respectively. The 5-year OS rates were 42.9%, 23.7%, and 0% for the surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy groups, respectively. The independent prognostic factors associated with survival were sex, histologic type, and treatment modality in both the early stage subgroup and the advanced stage subgroup of SMN.

Conclusions

Sex, histologic type, and treatment modality were the significant prognostic factors for SMN. Complete resection offers the best chance for long-term survival. In select patients with locally advanced and unresectable SMN, reirradiation should be strongly considered as a curative option.     

鼻咽癌放疗患者生命质量的相关影响因素研究

目的:探讨放疗对鼻咽癌(NPC)患者生命质量的影响及影响NPC患者生命质量因素。方法:选择2011年10月到2014年10月在我院接受三维适形放疗(3DCRT)或调强放疗(IMRT)的160例首次治疗NPC患者,随机分为3DCRT组和IMRT组,各80例。3DCRT组采用3DCRT治疗,IMRT组采用IMRT治疗。采用生命质量测定量表(QLQ-C30)分别在治疗结束时、治疗结束后3个月、治疗结束后1年对两组患者进行问卷调查,分析影响NPC患者总体生命质量的危险因素。结果:在不同时间点,IMRT组患者的总体生命质量评分、社会功能评分、家庭经济评分均明显低于3DCRT组(P0.05)。经过非条件二分类Logistic回归分析显示,影响NPC患者总体生命质量的因素有放疗方式、年龄、是否同期化疗及经济状况。结论:与3DCRT组相比,IMRT能改善患者总体生命质量、社会功能等,放疗方式、年龄、是否同期化疗及经济状况是NPC患者生命质量的影响因素。     

营养干预对局部晚期鼻咽癌患者放化疗期体质量及营养状态的影响

目的:探讨营养干预对局部晚期鼻咽癌患者在放化疗期间的营养状态及体质量的影响。方法:选取我院2015年1月-2019年12月收治的112例鼻咽癌晚期患者,按随机数表法分成营养干预组和对照组各56例,均采用同一放化疗治疗方案,观察组在此基础上给予营养干预。对比两组患者在放化疗治疗期间的生活质量(QOL)评分、营养状态、黏膜损害程度、体质量变化和近期疗效。结果:放射剂量达40Gy时,营养干预组QOL评分≥41分的比例显著高于对照组(P0.05);放疗结束后营养干预组发生Ⅲ级以上的口腔黏膜损害的患者比例显著低于对照组(P0.05);放化疗第4周营养干预组的体质量显著高于对照组(P0.05);放化疗治疗结束后两组原发灶残余比例和淋巴结转移比例比较均无统计学差异(P0.05);放化疗第4、7周营养干预组的血红蛋白(Hb)、总蛋白(TP)和白蛋白(Alb)显著高于对照组(P0.05)。结论:鼻咽癌患者在放化疗期间,营养状况下降明显,营养干预治疗能够有效改善患者的体质量和营养状况,对于患者的后续治疗具有重要意义,应在晚期鼻咽癌的临床治疗中推广营养干预。     

交替放化疗对晚期鼻咽癌患者疗效与影响因素分析

目的:评估交替放化疗(CRT)对晚期鼻咽癌(NPC)患者的疗效与影响因素。方法:选取在我院耳鼻喉科治疗的102例鼻咽癌患者。交替使用放疗,化疗进行治疗。在102例患者中,83例接受顺铂(50 mg/m2/d,d1-2)和5-氟尿嘧啶(5-Fu;800 mg/m2/d,d1-5),而19例患者接受卡铂(20 mg/m2/d,d6)和5-FU。结果:72(70.6%)例患者完成全部3个化疗疗程。交替放化疗的总时间为92(82-102)天。中位随访时间54个月,5年无进展生存期(PFS)为70.5%。多因素分析显示,体重减轻和化疗疗程数对PFS有显著影响。结论:化疗与放疗交替治疗的NPC患者依从性好,适应性强,值得临床推广。     

局部晚期鼻咽癌患者外周血VEGF检测及意义

目的:研究血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelium growth factor,VEGF)在局部晚期鼻咽癌患者外周血中的表达相,探讨VEGF与局部晚期鼻咽癌预后的关系,研究是否能预测局部晚期鼻咽癌患者的预后,或作为局部鼻咽癌治疗的靶分子,为寻找局部晚期鼻咽癌放化疗疗效的分子生物学评价指标提供依据。方法:选择57例局部晚期鼻咽癌患者,收集外周血标本,酶联免疫吸附实验(enzym-linked immunosorbent assay,ELISA)检测外周血中VEGF蛋白水平。结合临床病理特征和随访资料进行分析。结果:(1)局部晚期鼻咽癌患者外周血VEGF表达水平均与复发率、远处转移率有关(P0.05)。(2)局部晚期鼻咽癌患者外周血VEGF的表达水平与性别和年龄无关(P0.05)。(3)局部晚期鼻咽癌患者外周血VEGF的表达水平与生存率有关(P0.05)。结论:局部晚期鼻咽癌患者外周血中VEGF的表达水平对复发率、远处转移率和生存率有影响,提示VEGF在局部晚期鼻咽癌的侵袭转移中可能起协同作用;VEGF检测对筛选较高鼻咽癌转移风险的患者可能有更大的临床价值。     

Plasma Protein Profile of Lactating Women from Two Primary Health Centers in Jakarta,Indonesia

Background:Plasma protein profile test is a potential laboratory method to assess nutritional status especially albumin and globulins levels which reflects protein adequacy. The purpose of this study is to evaluate plasma protein profile of lactating women from two primary health centers in Jakarta.Methods:A cross-sectional study was conducted involving lactating women attending routine maternal examinations in two public primary health centers in Jakarta, Indonesia. The mother’s plasma total protein, albumin, globulin, and immunoglobulin levels were measured.Results:Sixty lactating women were recruited, mostly were 28 years old, slightly overweight, bearing two children, and their recent children were 2 months old. The mean total protein level was 8.13 g/dl, albumin 5.00 g/dl, globulin 3.18 g/dl, albumin: globulin ratio 1.558, mean total IgG level of 1255.98 and mean total IgM level of 135.819. All the measured plasma protein parameters were shown to be not correlated with maternal age, maternal BMI, or maternal parity.DiscussionThe plasma total protein, albumin, globulin, as well as total IgG and IgM level of lactating women in Jakarta were within normal range. These biochemical parameters were shown to be not correlated with anthropometrical data such as maternal age and BMI. The small and relatively homogenous samples were supposed to be the cause of such findings.Conclusion:The plasma protein profile of lactating women in Jakarta was adequate. Further studies are required to evaluate the eligibility of plasma protein profile as biochemical parameter of nutritional status in lactating women.Key Words: Blood protein, lactation, protein, albumin/globulin, immunoglobulin M/G     

The Glasgow Prognostic Score Predicts Poor Survival in Cisplatin-Based Treated Patients with Metastatic Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Background

Several inflammation-based prognostic scoring systems, including Glasgow Prognostic Score (GPS), neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and platelet to lymphocyte ratio (PLR) have been reported to predict survival in many malignancies, whereas their role in metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) remains unclear. The aim of this study is to evaluate the clinical value of these prognostic scoring systems in a cohort of cisplatin-based treated patients with metastatic NPC.

Methods

Two hundred and eleven patients with histologically proven metastatic NPC treated with first-line cisplatin-based chemotherapy were retrospectively evaluated. Demographics, disease-related characteristics and relevant laboratory data before treatment were recorded. GPS, NLR and PLR were calculated as described previously. Response to first-line therapy and survival data were also collected. Survival was analyzed in Cox regressions and stability of the models was examined by bootstrap resampling. The area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC) was calculated to compare the discriminatory ability of each scoring system.

Results

Among the above three inflammation-based prognostic scoring systems, GPS (P<0.001) and NLR (P = 0.019) were independently associated with overall survival, which showed to be stable in a bootstrap resampling study. The GPS consistently showed a higher AUC value at 6-month (0.805), 12-month (0.705), and 24-month (0.705) in comparison with NLR and PLR. Further analysis of the association of GPS with progression-free survival showed GPS was also associated independently with progression-free survival (P<0.001).

Conclusions

Our study demonstrated that the GPS may be of prognostic value in metastatic NPC patients treated with cisplatin-based palliative chemotherapy and facilitate individualized treatment. However a prospective study to validate this prognostic model is still needed.     

Unmet Needs for Cardiovascular Care in Indonesia

Background

In the past twenty years the heaviest burden of cardiovascular diseases has begun to shift from developed to developing countries. However, little is known about the real needs for cardiovascular care in these countries and how well those needs are being met. This study aims to investigate the prevalence and determinants of unmet needs for cardiovascular care based on objective assessment.

Methods and Findings

Multilevel analysis is used to analyse the determinants of met needs and multilevel multiple imputation is applied to manage missing data. The 2008 Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS4) survey is the source of the household data used in this study, while district data is sourced from the Ministry of Health and Ministry of Finance. The data shows that nearly 70% of respondents with moderate to high cardiovascular risk failed to receive cardiovascular care. Higher income, possession of health insurance and residence in urban areas are significantly associated with met needs for cardiovascular care, while health facility density and physician density show no association with them.

Conclusions

The prevalence of unmet needs for cardiovascular care is considerable in Indonesia. Inequality persists as a factor in meeting needs for cardiovascular care as the needs of people with higher incomes and those living in urban areas are more likely to be met. Alleviation of poverty, provision of health care insurance for the poor, and improvement in the quality of healthcare providers are recommended in order to meet this ever-increasing need.