Kinetics of interactions of sendai virus envelope glycoproteins, F and HN, with endoplasmic reticulum-resident molecular chaperones, BiP, calnexin, and calreticulin

Sendai virus envelope glycoproteins, F and HN, mature during their transport through the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi complex. To better understand their maturation processes in the ER, we investigated the time course of their interactions with three ER- resident molecular chaperones, BiP, calnexin (CNX), and calreticulin (CRT), in Sendai virus-infected HeLa cells. Pulse-chase and immunoprecipitation analyses using antibodies against each virus glycoprotein or ER chaperone revealed that F precursor interacted with CNX transiently (t(1/2)=8 min), while HN protein displayed longer and sequential interactions with BiP (t(1/2)=8 min), CNX (t(1/2)=15 min), and CRT (t(1/2)=20 min). HN interacted with the three ER chaperones not only as a monomer but also as a tetramer for several hours, suggesting mechanism(s) to undergo chaperone-mediated quality control of an assembled HN oligomer in the ER. The kinetics of dissociation of the HN-chaperone complexes exhibited a marked delay in the presence of proteasome inhibitors, suggesting that a part of HN associated with BiP, CNX, and CRT is destined to be degraded in the proteasome-dependent pathway. Further, the associations between virus glycoproteins and CNX or CRT were impaired by castanospermine, an inhibitor of ER glucosidase I and II, confirming that these interactions require monoglucosylated oligosaccharide on F(0) and HN peptides. These findings together suggest that newly synthesized F protein undergoes rapid maturation in the ER through a transient interaction with CNX, whereas HN protein requires more complex processes involving prolonged association with BiP, CNX, and CRT for its quality control in the ER.     

Quality control in the endoplasmic reticulum: folding and misfolding of vesicular stomatitis virus G protein in cells and in vitro

Parallel experiments in living cells and in vitro were undertaken to characterize the mechanism by which misfolded and unassembled glycoproteins are retained in the ER. A thermoreversible folding mutant of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) G protein called ts045 was analyzed. At 39 degrees C, newly synthesized G failed to fold correctly according to several criteria: intrachain disulfide bonds were incomplete; the B2 epitope was absent; and the protein was associated with immunoglobulin heavy chain binding protein (BiP), a heat shock-related, ER protein. When the temperature was lowered to 32 degrees C, these properties were reversed, and the protein was transported to the cell surface. Upon the shift up from 32 degrees C back to 39 degrees C, G protein in the ER returned to the misfolded form and was retained, while the protein that had reached a pre-Golgi compartment or beyond was thermostable and remained transport competent. The misfolding reaction could be reconstituted in a cell free system using ts045 virus particles and protein extracts from microsomes. Taken together, the results showed that ER is unique among the organelles of the secretory pathway in containing specific factors capable of misfolding G protein at the nonpermissive temperature and thus participating in its retention.     

Key Golgi factors for structural and functional maturation of bunyamwera virus

Several complex enveloped viruses assemble in the membranes of the secretory pathway, such as the Golgi apparatus. Among them, bunyaviruses form immature viral particles that change their structure in a trans-Golgi-dependent manner. To identify key Golgi factors for viral structural maturation, we have purified and characterized the three viral forms assembled in infected cells, two intracellular intermediates and the extracellular mature virion. The first viral form is a pleomorphic structure with fully endo-beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase H (Endo-H)-sensitive, nonsialylated glycoproteins. The second viral intermediate is a structure with hexagonal and pentagonal contours and partially Endo-H-resistant glycoproteins. Sialic acid is incorporated into the small glycoprotein of this second viral form. Growing the virus in glycosylation-deficient cells confirmed that acquisition of Endo-H resistance but not sialylation is critical for the trans-Golgi-dependent structural maturation and release of mature viruses. Conformational changes in viral glycoproteins triggered by changes in sugar composition would then induce the assembly of a compact viral particle of angular contours. These structures would be competent for the second maturation step, taking place during exit from cells, that originates fully infectious virions.     

Maturation of papillomavirus capsids

The papillomavirus capsid is a nonenveloped icosahedral shell formed by the viral major structural protein, L1. It is known that disulfide bonds between neighboring L1 molecules help to stabilize the capsid. However, the kinetics of inter-L1 disulfide bond formation during particle morphogenesis have not previously been examined. We have recently described a system for producing high-titer papillomavirus-based gene transfer vectors (also known as pseudoviruses) in mammalian cells. Here we show that papillomavirus capsids produced using this system undergo a maturation process in which the formation of inter-L1 disulfide bonds drives condensation and stabilization of the capsid. Fully mature capsids exhibit improved regularity and resistance to proteolytic digestion. Although capsid maturation for other virus types has been reported to occur in seconds or minutes, papillomavirus capsid maturation requires overnight incubation. Maturation of the capsids of human papillomavirus types 16 and 18 proceeds through an ordered accumulation of dimeric and trimeric L1 species, whereas the capsid of bovine papillomavirus type 1 matures into more extensively cross-linked forms. The presence of encapsidated DNA or the minor capsid protein, L2, did not have major effects on the kinetics or extent of capsid maturation. Immature capsids and capsids formed from L1 mutants with impaired disulfide bond formation are infectious but physically fragile. Consequently, capsid maturation is essential for efficient purification of papillomavirus-based gene transfer vectors. Despite their obvious morphological differences, mature and immature capsids are similarly neutralizable by various L1- and L2-specific antibodies.     

Oligomerization, transport, and Golgi retention of Punta Toro virus glycoproteins.

We have investigated the oligomerization and intracellular transport of the membrane glycoproteins of Punta Toro virus, a member of the Phlebovirus genus of the family Bunyaviridae, which is assembled by budding in the Golgi complex. By using one- or two-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, chemical cross-linking, and sucrose gradient centrifugation, we found that the majority of the G1 and G2 glycoproteins are assembled into noncovalently linked G1-G2 heterodimers. At the same time, a fraction of the G2 protein, possibly produced independently of the G1 protein, is assembled into G2 homodimers. Kinetic analysis indicates that heterodimerization occurs between newly synthesized G1 and G2 within 3 min after protein synthesis, and that the G1 and G2 glycoproteins are associated as dimeric forms both during transport and after accumulation in the Golgi complex. Analysis of a G1-truncated G2 mutant, which is also targeted to the Golgi complex, showed that these molecules also assemble into dimeric forms, which are linked by disulfide bonds. Both the G1-G2 heterodimer and the G2 homodimer were found to be able to exit from the endoplasmic reticulum. Differences in transport kinetics observed for the G1 and G2 proteins may be due to the differences in the transport efficiency between the G1-G2 heterodimer and the G2 homodimer from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi complex. These and previous results (S.-Y. Chen, Y. Matsuoka, and R.W. Compans, Virology 183:351-365, 1991) suggest that Golgi retention of the G2 homodimer occurs by association with the G1-G2 heterodimer, whereas the Golgi targeting of the G1-G2 heterodimer occurs by a specific retention mechanism.     

Extracellular cleavage of the glycoprotein precursor of Rous sarcoma virus.

The kinetics of cleavage of pr92gp, the precursor of the two glycoproteins of Rous sarcoma virus gp85 and gp35, were followed. Viral glycoproteins were detected by immunoprecipitation with anti-gp85 and anti-gp35 serum. It could be shown in pulse-chase experiments that little or no intracellular cleavage of the precursor took place during the time in which the majority of newly synthesized viral glycoprotein was exported from the cells. Soon after its synthesis, however, pr92gp underwent some modification that made it migrate slightly faster on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels. Under steady state conditions the precursor was shown to be the predominant form of intracellular viral glycoprotein. Virus which was harvested every 2 min from infected cells prelabeled for 90 min with [3H]mannose contained mostly uncleaved and only a little mature glycoprotein. By incubation of this freshly released virus in serum-free buffer, the majority of the glycoprotein precursor could be cleaved into mature gp85 and gp35. Virus harvested every 10 min contained only mature glycoproteins.     

Transient Association of Calnexin and Calreticulin with Newly Synthesized G1 and G2 Glycoproteins of Uukuniemi Virus (Family Bunyaviridae)

The membrane glycoproteins G1 and G2 of Uukuniemi virus, a member of the Bunyaviridae family, are cotranslationally cleaved from a common precursor in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Here, we show that newly made G1 and G2 associate transiently with calnexin and calreticulin, two lectins involved in glycoprotein folding in the ER. Stable complexes between G1-G2 and calnexin or calreticulin could be immunoprecipitated after solubilization of virus-infected BHK21 cells with the detergents digitonin or Triton X-100. In addition, G1-G2-calnexin complexes could be recovered after solubilization with CHAPS (3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)-dimethylammonio]-1-propane sulfonate), while G1-G2-calreticulin complexes were not readily detected by using this detergent. Only endoglycosidase H-sensitive forms of G1 were found complexed with calnexin. Pulse-chase experiments showed that G1 and G2 associated with both chaperones transiently for up to 120 min. Sequential immunoprecipitations with anticalreticulin and anticalnexin antisera indicated that about 50% of newly synthesized G1 and G2 was associated with either calnexin or calreticulin. Our previous results have shown that newly synthesized G1 and G2 transiently interact also with the ER chaperone BiP and with protein disulfide isomerase (R. Persson and R. F. Pettersson, J. Cell Biol. 112:257-266, 1991). Taking all of this into consideration, we conclude that the folding of G1 and G2 in the ER is catalyzed by at least four different folding factors.     

Silencing the morphogenesis of rotavirus

The morphogenesis of rotaviruses follows a unique pathway in which immature double-layered particles (DLPs) assembled in the cytoplasm bud across the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), acquiring during this process a transient lipid membrane which is modified with the ER resident viral glycoproteins NSP4 and VP7; these enveloped particles also contain VP4. As the particles move towards the interior of the ER cisternae, the transient lipid membrane and the nonstructural protein NSP4 are lost, while the virus surface proteins VP4 and VP7 rearrange to form the outermost virus protein layer, yielding mature infectious triple-layered particles (TLPs). In this work, we have characterized the role of NSP4 and VP7 in rotavirus morphogenesis by silencing the expression of both glycoproteins through RNA interference. Silencing the expression of either NSP4 or VP7 reduced the yield of viral progeny by 75 to 80%, although the underlying mechanism of this reduction was different in each case. Blocking the synthesis of NSP4 affected the intracellular accumulation and the cellular distribution of several viral proteins, and little or no virus particles (neither DLPs nor TLPs) were assembled. VP7 silencing, in contrast, did not affect the expression or distribution of other viral proteins, but in its absence, enveloped particles accumulated within the lumen of the ER, and no mature infectious virus was produced. Altogether, these results indicate that during a viral infection, NSP4 serves as a receptor for DLPs on the ER membrane and drives the budding of these particles into the ER lumen, while VP7 is required for removing the lipid envelope during the final step of virus morphogenesis.     

Efficient transport of Semliki Forest virus glycoproteins through a Golgi complex morphologically altered by Uukuniemi virus glycoproteins.

In infected BHK21 cells, the glycoproteins G1 and G2 of a temperature-sensitive mutant (ts12) of Uukuniemi virus (UUK) accumulate at 39 degrees C in the Golgi complex (GC) causing an expansion and vacuolization of this organelle. We have studied whether such an altered Golgi complex can carry out the glycosylation and transport to the plasma membrane (PM) of the Semliki Forest virus (SFV) glycoproteins in double-infected cells. Double-immunofluorescence staining showed that approximately 90% of the cells became infected with both viruses. Almost the same final yield of infectious SFV was obtained from double-infected cells as from cells infected with SFV alone. The rate of transport from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) via the GC to the plasma membrane of the SFV glycoproteins was analysed by immunofluorescence, surface radioimmunoassay and pulse-chase labeling followed by immunoprecipitation, endoglycosidase H digestion and SDS-PAGE. The results showed that: the SFV glycoproteins were readily transported to the cell surface in double-infected cells, whereas the UUK glycoproteins were retained in the GC; the transport to the PM was retarded by approximately 20 min, due to a delay between the ER and the central Golgi; E1 of SFV appeared at the PM in a sialylated form. These results indicate that the morphologically altered GC had retained its functional integrity to glycosylate and transport plasma membrane glycoproteins.     

Uukuniemi virus maturation: accumulation of virus particles and viral antigens in the Golgi complex.

We studied the maturation of Uukuniemi virus and the localization of the viral surface glycoproteins and nucleocapsid protein in infected cells by electron microscopy, indirect immunofluorescence, and immunoelectron microscopy with specific antisera prepared in rabbits against the two glycoproteins G1 and G2 and the nucleocapsid protein N. Electron microscopy of thin sections from infected cells showed virus particles maturing at smooth-surfaced membranes close to the nucleus. Localization of the G1/G2 and N proteins by indirect immunofluorescence at different stages after infection showed the antigens to be present throughout the cell interior but concentrated in the juxtanuclear region. The G1/G2 antiserum also appeared to stain the nuclear and plasma membranes. Double staining with tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate-conjugated wheat germ agglutinin, which preferentially stains the Golgi complex, and fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated anti-rabbit immunoglobulin G, which stained the G1/G2 or N proteins, showed that the staining of the juxtanuclear region coincided. Similarly, double staining for thiamine pyrophosphatase, an enzyme activity specific for the Golgi complex, showed the fluorescence and the cytochemical stain to coincide in the juxtanuclear region. Immunoperoxidase electron microscopy of cells permeabilized with saponin revealed that the viral glycoproteins were present in the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the nuclear and Golgi membranes; the latter was heavily stained. With this method, the N protein was localized to the cytoplasm, especially around smooth-surfaced vesicles in the Golgi region. Taken together, the results indicate that Uukuniemi virus and its structural proteins accumulate in the Golgi complex, supporting the idea that this compartment rather than the plasma membrane is the site of virus maturation. This raises the interesting possibility that deficient transport of the glycoproteins to the plasma membrane and hence their accumulation in the Golgi complex determines the site of virus maturation.     

Membrane glycoprotein folding, oligomerization and intracellular transport: effects of dithiothreitol in living cells.

Using influenza hemagglutinin (HA0) and vesicular stomatitis virus G protein as model proteins, we have analyzed the effects of dithiothreitol (DTT) on conformational maturation and transport of glycoproteins in the secretory pathway of living cells. While DTT caused reduction of folding intermediates and misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), it did not affect molecules that had already acquired a mature trimeric conformation, whether present in the ER or elsewhere. The conversion to DTT resistance was therefore a pre-Golgi event. Reduction of folding intermediates was dependent on the intactness of the ER and on metabolic energy, suggesting cooperativity between DTT and ER folding factors. DTT did not inhibit most cellular functions, including ATP synthesis and protein transport within the secretory pathway. The results established DTT as an effective tool for analyzing the folding and compartmental distribution of proteins with disulfide bonds.     

The structure of G4, the poxvirus disulfide oxidoreductase essential for virus maturation and infectivity

The possibility of the release of smallpox virus into a predominantly nonimmunized population highlights the importance of understanding poxvirus biology. Poxviruses encode a conserved pathway that is required to oxidize disulfide bonds in nascent viral proteins that fold in the reducing environment of the eukaryotic host cytoplasm. We present the structure of the last enzyme of the vaccinia virus pathway, G4, which is almost identical in smallpox virus. G4 catalyzes the formation of disulfide bonds in proteins that are critical for virus maturation and host cell infection. G4 contains a thioredoxin fold and a Cys-X-X-Cys active site. In solution, G4 monomers and dimers are observed. In the crystal, G4 is found as a dimer that buries 4,500 A(2) in the interface and occludes the active site, which could protect the reactive disulfide from reduction in the cytoplasm. The structure serves as a model for drug design targeting viral disulfide bond formation.     

Calcium depletion blocks the maturation of rotavirus by altering the oligomerization of virus-encoded proteins in the ER.

Maturation of rotavirus occurs in the ER. The virus transiently acquires an ER-derived membrane surrounding the virus particle before the eventual formation of double-shelled particles. The maturation process includes the retention and selective loss of specific viral protein(s) as well as the ER-derived membrane during formation of the outer capsid of the mature virus. When infected cells were depleted of Ca++ by use of the ionophore A23187 in calcium-free medium, membrane-enveloped intermediates were seen to accumulate. When Mn++, an efficient Ca++ competitor, was used to replace Ca++ in the medium, the accumulation of the enveloped intermediate was again observed, pointing to an absolute requirement of Ca++ in the maturation process. It was previously demonstrated in this laboratory that a hetero-oligomeric complex of NS28, VP7, and VP4 exists which may participate in the budding of the single-shelled particle into the ER (Maass, D. R., and P. H. Atkinson, 1990. J. Virol. 64:2632-2641). The present study demonstrates that either in the absence of Ca++ or in the presence of tunicamycin, a glycosylation inhibitor, VP7 is excluded from these hetero-oligomers. In the presence of Mn++, VP4 was blocked in forming a hetero-oligomeric complex with NS28 and VP7. The electrophoretic mobility of the viral glycoproteins synthesized in the presence of the ionophore were found to be altered. This size difference was attributed to altered N-linked glycosylation and carbohydrate processing of the viral glycoproteins. These results imply a major role for calcium and the state of glycosylation of NS28 in the assembly and acquisition of specific viral protein conformations necessary for the correct association of proteins during virus maturation in the ER.     

Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus Particle Morphogenesis in Plant Cells

A model for the maturation of tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) particles is proposed, mainly based on results with a protoplast infection system, in which the chronology of different maturation events could be determined. By using specific monoclonal and polyclonal antisera in immunofluorescence and electron microscopy, the site of TSWV particle morphogenesis was determined to be the Golgi system. The viral glycoproteins G1 and G2 accumulate in the Golgi prior to a process of wrapping, by which the viral nucleocapsids obtain a double membrane. In a later stage of the maturation, these doubly enveloped particles fuse to each other and to the endoplasmic reticulum to form singly enveloped particles clustered in membranes. Similarities and differences between the maturation of animal-infecting (bunya)viruses and plant-infecting tospoviruses are discussed.     

Role of disulfide bond formation in the folding and assembly of the envelope glycoproteins of a pestivirus

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is a pestivirus member of the Flaviviridae family, closely related to, and used as a surrogate model for the hepatitis C virus. Its envelope contains the E1 and E2 glycoproteins, disulfide linked into homo- and heterodimers. In this study, we investigate the role of disulfide bond formation in the folding, assembly, and stability of BVDV glycoproteins. We provide molecular evidence that intact disulfide bonds are critical for the acquirement of a stable conformation of E2 monomers. Forcing the E2 glycoproteins to adopt a reduced conformation either co- or post-translationally before assembly into dimers, determines their misfolding and degradation by proteasome. In contrast, dimerization of E2 glycoproteins results in a conformation resistant to reducing agents and degradation. Furthermore, inhibition of the ER-alpha-mannosidase activity leads to impairment of misfolded E2 degradation, demonstrating the involvement of this enzyme in targeting viral proteins towards proteasomal degradation.     

Role for adenosine triphosphate in regulating the assembly and transport of vesicular stomatitis virus G protein trimers

We have characterized the process by which the vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) G protein acquires its final oligomeric structure using density-gradient centrifugation in mildly acidic sucrose gradients. The mature wild-type VSV G protein is a noncovalently associated trimer. Trimers are assembled from newly synthesized G monomers with a t1/2 of 6-8 min. To localize the site of trimerization and to correlate trimer formation with steps in transport between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi complex, we examined the kinetics of assembly of the temperature-sensitive mutant VSV strain, ts045. At the nonpermissive temperature (39 degrees C), ts045 G protein is not transported from the ER. The phenotypic defect that inhibited export from the ER at the nonpermissive temperature was found to be the accumulation of ts045 G protein in an aggregate. After being shifted to the permissive temperature (32 degrees C), the ts045 G protein aggregate rapidly dissociated (t1/2 less than 1 min) to monomeric G protein which subsequently trimerized with the same kinetics as the wild-type G protein. Only trimers were transported to the Golgi complex. Kinetic studies, as well as the finding that trimerization occurred under conditions which block ER to Golgi transport (at both 15 and 4 degrees C), showed that trimers were formed in the ER. Depletion of cellular ATP inhibited both the dissociation of the aggregated intermediate of ts045 G protein as well as the formation of stable trimers. The results indicate that oligomerization of G protein occurs in several steps, is sensitive to cellular ATP, and is required for transport from the ER.     

Intra- and intermolecular disulfide bonds of the GP2b glycoprotein of equine arteritis virus: relevance for virus assembly and infectivity

Equine arteritis virus (EAV) is an enveloped, positive-strand RNA virus belonging to the family Arteriviridae of the order NIDOVIRALES: EAV virions contain six different envelope proteins. The glycoprotein GP(5) (previously named G(L)) and the unglycosylated membrane protein M are the major envelope proteins, while the glycoproteins GP(2b) (previously named G(S)), GP(3), and GP(4) are minor structural proteins. The unglycosylated small hydrophobic envelope protein E is present in virus particles in intermediate molar amounts compared to the other transmembrane proteins. The GP(5) and M proteins are both essential for particle assembly. They occur as covalently linked heterodimers that constitute the basic protein matrix of the envelope. The GP(2b), GP(3), and GP(4) proteins occur as a heterotrimeric complex in which disulfide bonds play an important role. The function of this complex has not been established yet, but the available data suggest it to be involved in the viral entry process. Here we investigated the role of the four cysteine residues of the mature GP(2b) protein in the assembly of the GP(2b)/GP(3)/GP(4) complex. Open reading frames encoding cysteine-to-serine mutants of the GP(2b) protein were expressed independently or from a full-length infectious EAV cDNA clone. The results of these experiments support a model in which the cysteine residue at position 102 of GP(2b) forms an intermolecular cystine bridge with one of the cysteines of the GP(4) protein, while the cysteine residues at positions 48 and 137 of GP(2b) are linked by an intrachain disulfide bond. In this model, another cysteine residue in the GP(4) protein is responsible for the covalent association of GP(3) with the disulfide-linked GP(2b)/GP(4) heterodimer. In addition, our data highlight the importance of the correct association of the minor EAV envelope glycoproteins for their efficient incorporation into viral particles and for virus infectivity.     

Evidence against an essential role of COPII-mediated cargo transport to the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment in the formation of the primary membrane of vaccinia virus

Vaccinia virus assembles two distinct lipoprotein membranes. The primary membrane contains nonglycosylated proteins, appears as crescents in the cytoplasm, and delimits immature and mature intracellular virions. The secondary or wrapping membrane contains glycoproteins, is derived from virus-modified trans-Golgi or endosomal cisternae, forms a loose coat around some intracellular mature virions, and becomes the envelope of extracellular virions. Although the mode of formation of the wrapping membrane is partially understood, we know less about the primary membrane. Recent reports posit that the primary membrane originates from the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC). According to this model, viral primary membrane proteins are cotranslationally inserted into the ER and accumulate in the ERGIC. To test the ERGIC model, we employed Sar1(H79G), a dominant negative form of the Sar1 protein, which is an essential component of coatomer protein II (COPII)-mediated cargo transport from the ER to the ERGIC and other post-ER compartments. Overexpression of Sar1(H79G) by transfection or by a novel recombinant vaccinia virus with an inducible Sar1(H79G) gene resulted in retention of ERGIC 53 in the ER but did not interfere with localization of viral primary membrane proteins in factory regions or with formation of viral crescent membranes and infectious intracellular mature virions. Wrapping of intracellular mature virions and formation of extracellular virions did not occur, however, because some proteins that are essential for the secondary membrane were retained in the ER as a consequence of Sar1(H79G) overexpression. Our data argue against an essential role of COPII-mediated cargo transport and the ERGIC in the formation of the viral primary membrane. Instead, viral membranes may be derived directly from the ER or by a novel mechanism.     

Characterization of functional hepatitis C virus envelope glycoproteins

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) encodes two envelope glycoproteins, E1 and E2, that assemble as a noncovalent heterodimer which is mainly retained in the endoplasmic reticulum. Because assembly into particles and secretion from the cell lead to structural changes in viral envelope proteins, characterization of the proteins associated with the virion is necessary in order to better understand how they mature to be functional in virus entry. There is currently no efficient and reliable cell culture system to amplify HCV, and the envelope glycoproteins associated with the virion have therefore not been characterized yet. Recently, infectious pseudotype particles that are assembled by displaying unmodified HCV envelope glycoproteins on retroviral core particles have been successfully generated. Because HCV pseudotype particles contain fully functional envelope glycoproteins, these envelope proteins, or at least a fraction of them, should be in a mature conformation similar to that on the native HCV particles. In this study, we used conformation-dependent monoclonal antibodies to characterize the envelope glycoproteins associated with HCV pseudotype particles. We showed that the functional unit is a noncovalent E1E2 heterodimer containing complex or hybrid type glycans. We did not observe any evidence of maturation by a cellular endoprotease during the transport of these envelope glycoproteins through the secretory pathway. These envelope glycoproteins were recognized by a panel of conformation-dependent monoclonal antibodies as well as by CD81, a molecule involved in HCV entry. The functional envelope glycoproteins associated with HCV pseudotype particles were also shown to be sensitive to low-pH treatment. Such conformational changes are likely necessary to initiate fusion.     

Analysis of the C-Terminal Membrane Anchor Domains of Hepatitis C Virus Glycoproteins E1 and E2: toward a Topological Model

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) glycoproteins E1 and E2 should be anchored in the viral membrane by their C-terminal domains. During synthesis, they are translocated to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen where they remain. The 31 C-terminal residues of the E1 protein and the 29 C-terminal residues of the E2 protein are implicated in the ER retention. Moreover, the E1 and E2 C termini are implicated in E1-E2 heterodimerization. We studied the E1 and E2 C-terminal sequences of 25 HCV strains in silico using molecular modeling techniques. We conclude that both C-terminal domains should adopt a similar and peculiar configuration: one amphipathic alpha-helix followed by a pair of transmembrane beta-strands. Several three-dimensional (3-D) models were generated. After energy minimization, their ability to interact with membranes was studied using the molecular hydrophobicity potentials calculation and the IMPALA procedure. The latter simulates interactions with a membrane by a Monte Carlo minimization of energy. These methods suggest that the beta-hairpins could anchor the glycoproteins in the ER membrane at least transiently. Anchoring could be stabilized by the adsorption of the nearby amphipathic alpha-helices at the membrane surface. The 3-D models correlate with experimental results which indicate that the E1-E2 transmembrane domains are involved in the heterodimerization and have ER retention properties.