Brown Bear Den Habitat and Winter Recreation in South-Central Alaska

ABSTRACT Increasing demand for backcountry recreation opportunities during winter (e.g., snowshoeing, helicopter-assisted skiing, snowmobiling) in steep, high-elevation terrain has elevated concern about disturbance to brown bears (Ursus arctos) denning on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, USA. To help identify areas where such conflicts might occur, we developed a spatially explicit model to predict potential den habitat. The model indicated brown bears selected locations for den sites with steep slopes, away from roads and trails. Den sites were associated with habitat high in elevation and away from potential human contact. We then compared areas with the highest probability of providing den habitat with patterns of snowmobile and nonmotorized recreation on a portion of the Kenai Peninsula. We found limited overlap between the 2 recreation activities and potential den habitat for brown bears. At the landscape scale, however, backcountry skiing overlapped more high-quality den habitat than did snowmobile riding. Our results may be used by land management agencies to identify potential conflict sites and to minimize the potential effects of recreation activities on brown bears in dens.     

Den shifting by wolves in semi-wild landscapes in the Deccan Plateau, Maharashtra, India

Reproductive success is crucial for the survival and persistence of any species. The Deccan Biogeographic Zone of India is the stronghold of a population of the Indian wolf Canis lupus pallipes . Gaining a better understanding of the den-use pattern of wolves in different areas in this zone is thus vital for their conservation and management. The wolves excavated multiple dens in our study sites and kept shifting their litters among them. Major disturbance factors around denning sites were active stone quarries, traffic, crop harvesting and livestock movement. One wolf pack used 14 dens in four breeding seasons. Discriminant function analysis indicated that den shifting by wolves was not entirely governed by disturbance levels at den sites. Increasing age of pups was one of the main factors associated with den shifting rather than the magnitude of disturbance ( χ ²=34.26, d.f.=12, P <0.001). Tolerance to disturbance around dens during the early stages of pup development was negatively correlated ( r =−0.519, P <0.05) with availability of water and age of pups ( r =−0.613, P <0.01). Excavation of multiple dens by wolves was apparently related to den shifting, which seemingly is a survival strategy of wolves in these semi-wild human-dominated landscapes in the Deccan Biogeographic Zone. Principal components analysis indicated that during the initial stages of pup development, nature of the land, den orientation and distance of the den from roads were important cues in addition to age category of pups for den shifting. The analysis also suggested that factors such as distance of the new den where pups are to be transferred, distance from water source and availability of fox Vulpes bengalensis holes for den use were also important.     

Wolf pack rendezvous site selection in Greece is mainly affected by anthropogenic landscape features

In wolves, most offspring mortality occurs within the first 6–8 months of their life. As wolf pups pass this entire period at either the den or rendezvous sites, their selection by wolf packs may affect pup survival and recruitment. Rendezvous sites are important for pup survival as they are used during summer and early autumn, when intense human activity may increase pup mortality. Adult wolves and pups can be killed by livestock guarding dogs during summer and intentionally or accidentally during large game hunting in autumn. This study describes factors related to rendezvous site selection in order to enhance their protection and management. We studied the rendezvous site selection of 30 wolf packs in central and northern Greece between 1998 and 2010, after locating 35 sites using the simulated howling survey method and telemetry. We considered a series of environmental and anthropogenic predictors of wolf rendezvous site selection at two spatial scales. At the landscape-population scale, wolves selected rendezvous sites below 1,200 m asl, with large inter-site distance (mean, 12.9 km), and avoided partially forested or open habitats, indicating preference for covered, spaced areas with seasonally stable resources. At the home range scale, wolves selected rendezvous sites away from forest roads and villages, close to water sources, and in areas with low forest fragmentation, indicating avoidance of human presence and disturbance. In the summer of 2011, we used an ensuing resource selection model (RSF, AUC?=?0.818) to successfully locate seven new rendezvous sites outside our previous survey area, verifying the utility of prediction maps (all new sites were at areas with 0.8–1 model probability). Rendezvous prediction maps can be used to reduce field effort when monitoring wolf populations, assess livestock predation risk, design protected areas, and reduce human disturbance on reproductive wolf packs.     

The effects of forest fires on polar bear maternity denning habitat in western Hudson Bay

The effects of forest fires on polar bear (Ursus maritimus) maternity denning habitat in western Hudson Bay were determined by comparing the physical characteristics of 48 burned and 101 unburned maternity den sites from September 2001 to October 2003. Fire significantly altered vegetation composition and increased the depth of the active layer, resulting in a decrease in the stability of den sites, the collapse of dens, and degradation of the surrounding habitat. Although bears investigated burned areas, analysis of mark and recapture data, satellite telemetry, radio-telemetry, and field observations all demonstrated that bears did not use burned areas for denning. While peat denning habitat is likely not limiting at this time, the re-use and occupancy of peat den sites during the summer may be an important means of energy conservation for pregnant female bears in western Hudson Bay. Increased energy expenditures in association with increased search times for suitable den sites and the excavation of new dens can potentially affect reproductive success. Predicted increases in forest fire activity as a result of climate change, along with the long-term recovery of denning habitat may reduce the amount of suitable denning habitat in the future. Resource managers need to be aware of the possibility of a shift in the distribution of denning bears and further loss of maternity denning habitat in western Hudson Bay.     

Predicting the Spatial Distribution of Wolf (Canis lupus) Breeding Areas in a Mountainous Region of Central Italy

Wolves (Canis lupus) in Italy represent a relict west European population. They are classified as vulnerable by IUCN, though have increased in number and expanded their range in recent decades. Here we use 17 years of monitoring data (from 1993 to 2010) collected in a mountainous region of central Italy (Arezzo, Tuscany) in an ecological niche-based model (MaxEnt) to characterize breeding sites (i.e. the areas where pups were raised) within home ranges, as detected from play-back responses. From a suite of variables related to topography, habitat and human disturbance we found that elevation and distance to protected areas were most important in explaining the locality of wolf responses. Rendezvous sites (family play-back response sites) typically occurred between 800 and 1200 m a.s.l., inside protected areas, and were usually located along mountain chains distant from human settlements and roads. In these areas human disturbance is low and the densities of ungulates are typically high. Over recent years, rendezvous sites have occurred closer to urban areas as the wolf population has continued to expand, despite the consequent human disturbance. This suggests that undisturbed landscapes may be reaching their carrying capacity for wolves. This, in turn, may lead to the potential for increased human-wolf interactions in future. Applying our model, both within and beyond the species’ current range, we identify sites both within the current range and also further afield, that the species could occupy in future. Our work underlines the importance of the present protected areas network in facilitating the recolonisation by wolves. Our projections of suitability of sites for future establishment as the population continues to expand could inform planning to minimize future wolf-human conflicts.     

Wolf denning behaviour in response to external disturbances and implications for pup survival

We conducted a 15-year study (1999–2014) of wolf denning behavior in Naliboki Forest, Belarus, to determine the extent to which some external factors (rain, mosquitoes, human disturbances) and litter size are negatively correlated with pup survival until autumn.For this purpose we entirely documented denning areas of 30 breeding wolf pairs. Initial denning area includes the natal den site and (ii) secondary den sites between which the parent wolves transported sucessively the litter during the rearing season.The number of den sites per denning area ranged from 1 to 4. The distances in kilometres differed significantly between den sites. The total number of dens (surface dens and burrows) was higher in the natal den site compared with the other den sites. The number of surface dens per den site was higher compared with burrows in den sites 1, 2 and 3 but not den site 4. A total of 168 pups was found over the 15 years. Litter sizes ranged from 1 to 11 (average 5.6 ± 1.9). The rate of pup survival ranged from 0 to 100% and averaged 54.5 ± 29%.We examined the bivariate association between environmental conditions (mosquitoes, rainfall and human presence) and number of surface dens, total number of burrows and number of den sites. Environmental conditions were assessed from spring to mid-summer. Results show that there was a positive relationship between environmental conditions and number of den sites, and also that more difficult environmental conditions (rainy weather, many mosquitoes) decreased pup survival both in absolute and in relative terms. A cluster analysis showed that pup survival was also influenced by human presence. Wolves probably have a more complicated denning behaviour following stressful event which may lead to less effectiveness for feeding or protecting pups. The number of pups surviving was also found to be lower when there were many (8–10) pups because den shifting is more risky in this case. Burrows improve pup survival. Our results tend to suggest that, in our study area, a high mortality rate of wolf pups could be related to external and internal factors of stress.     

Movement and Habitat Use of Canada Lynx During Denning in Minnesota

Abstract Establishing whether conditions are suitable for reproduction would help determine if immigration is necessary for Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) to persist at the southern edge of the species range. We located den sites and monitored reproduction of radiocollared lynx in Minnesota from 2004 to 2006. Movement rates of denning females measured with Global Positioning System collars were similar to movement rates of lynx elsewhere. Female lynx with kittens used different habitat types in predenning, denning, and postdenning periods. Landscape composition at the scale of the foraging radius around a den site contained more lowland conifer, upland conifer, and regenerating forest than did home ranges or the area used by radiocollared lynx in Minnesota, USA. We used the spatial distribution of cover-type composition around known den sites to predict and map potential denning habitat in northeastern Minnesota. Techniques for identifying the spatial distribution of suitable denning habitat provide a biological basis for management actions that could enhance recovery of Canada lynx populations in the southern part of the species range.     

Response of Wolves to Experimental Disturbance at Homesites

ABSTRACT Events during the denning period (parturition to first autumn) often determine the reproductive success of wolves (Canis lupus). Consequently, there is concern about the potential adverse effects of human-caused disturbance at wolf den and rendezvous sites (homesites), but relatively little information on this subject is available. We conducted standardized experimental disturbance treatments at 12 unique wolf homesites in the Northwest Territories, Canada, during summers 2002 and 2003. The treatment consisted of an intruder approaching a homesite once per day for 3 consecutive days and recording behavioral responses, response distance, and response intensity of wolves. We counted pups and estimated their ages prior to the initial treatment at each site. Adult wolves moved pups at 3 of 6 treated homesites in each year. The amount and type of known human activity within a pack's home range did not influence whether adults moved pups in response to the treatment. The response intensity of wolves to the treatment was inversely related to the amount of human activity near a homesite. There was no relationship between the distance at which wolves responded to the intruder and the amount or type of human activity. There was a positive relationship between increasing age of pups and their relocation in response to the treatment. Reproductive success was not influenced by the treatment or by the amount and type of human activity. Treated sites were used by wolves the following year in the same proportion as untreated sites. It appears that pups are most vulnerable early in the year when less mobile; therefore, managers should consider age of pups before human activity at or near wolf homesites occurs.     

Spatial patterns of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) dens in a semi-arid landscape of North Africa

Different patterns of the use of space by red foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ) depend mainly on the distribution and availability of food patches. Nevertheless, other key resources such as suitable areas for dens can also influence the territory size and social organization of this predator. In fact, landscape modifications such as habitat patchiness made by human activities (agricultural practices, urbanization) should create ample unfavourable zones for den settlement. Several studies focused on the distribution and use of dens by the red fox in different habitat types but we do not have any data on the den settlement and habitat composition in the semi-arid regions of North Africa. This study was carried out at Djerba island (SE Tunisia), virtually deprived of surface water and with a semi-arid climate because of the bordering Sahara desert. We used line and random transects to find fox dens. The spatial pattern of dens varied mainly in different habitat types and geoclimatic regions. Highly fragmented areas were also occupied by foxes that built dens close together inside small suitable patches. Fox dens had fewer entrances in more arid regions and they mainly faced the south. Habitat selection was influenced by water availability and irrigated tree plantations that modify soil textures allowing digging of dens. Moreover, asphalt roads limit den settlements. We suggest that the choice of denning sites by foxes depends on persisting harsh conditions and human activities.     

Framework for strategic wind farm site prioritisation based on modelled wolf reproduction habitat in Croatia

In order to meet carbon reduction targets, many nations are greatly expanding their wind power capacity. However, wind farm infrastructure potentially harms wildlife, and we must therefore find ways to balance clean energy demands with the need to protect wildlife. Wide-ranging carnivores live at low density and are particularly susceptible to disturbance from infrastructure development, so are a particular concern in this respect. We focused on Croatia, which holds an important population of wolves and is currently planning to construct many new wind farms. Specifically, we sought to identify an optimal subset of planned wind farms that would meet energy targets while minimising potential impact on wolves. A suitability model for wolf breeding habitat was carried out using Maxent, based on six environmental variables and 31 reproduction site locations collected between 1997 and 2015. Wind farms were prioritised using Marxan to find the optimal trade-off between energy capacity and overlap with critical wolf reproduction habitat. The habitat suitability model predictions were consistent with the current knowledge: probability of wolf breeding site presence increased with distance to settlements, distance to farmland and distance to roads and decreased with distance to forest. Spatial optimisation showed that it would be possible to meet current energy targets with only 31% of currently proposed wind farms, selected in a way that reduces the potential ecological cost (overall predicted wolf breeding site presence within wind farm sites) by 91%. This is a highly efficient outcome, demonstrating the value of this approach for prioritising infrastructure development based on its potential impact on wide-ranging wildlife species.     

Implications of Harvest on the Boundaries of Protected Areas for Large Carnivore Viewing Opportunities

The desire to see free ranging large carnivores in their natural habitat is a driver of tourism in protected areas around the globe. However, large carnivores are wide-ranging and subject to human-caused mortality outside protected area boundaries. The impact of harvest (trapping or hunting) on wildlife viewing opportunities has been the subject of intense debate and speculation, but quantitative analyses have been lacking. We examined the effect of legal harvest of wolves (Canis lupus) along the boundaries of two North American National Parks, Denali (DNPP) and Yellowstone (YNP), on wolf viewing opportunities within the parks during peak tourist season. We used data on wolf sightings, pack sizes, den site locations, and harvest adjacent to DNPP from 1997–2013 and YNP from 2008–2013 to evaluate the relationship between harvest and wolf viewing opportunities. Although sightings were largely driven by wolf population size and proximity of den sites to roads, sightings in both parks were significantly reduced by harvest. Sightings in YNP increased by 45% following years with no harvest of a wolf from a pack, and sightings in DNPP were more than twice as likely during a period with a harvest buffer zone than in years without the buffer. These findings show that harvest of wolves adjacent to protected areas can reduce sightings within those areas despite minimal impacts on the size of protected wolf populations. Consumptive use of carnivores adjacent to protected areas may therefore reduce their potential for non-consumptive use, and these tradeoffs should be considered when developing regional wildlife management policies.     

Landward and eastward shift of Alaskan polar bear denning associated with recent sea ice changes

Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) in the northern Alaska region den in coastal areas and on offshore drifting ice. We evaluated changes in the distribution of polar bear maternal dens between 1985 and 2005, using satellite telemetry. We determined the distribution of maternal dens occupied by 89 satellite collared female polar bears between 137°W and 167°W longitude. The proportion of dens on pack ice declined from 62% in 1985–1994 to 37% in 1998–2004 (P = 0.044) and among pack ice dens fewer occurred in the western Beaufort Sea after 1998. We evaluated whether hunting, attraction to bowhead whale remains, or changes in sea ice could explain changes in den distribution. We concluded that denning distribution changed in response to reductions in stable old ice, increases in unconsolidated ice, and lengthening of the melt season. In consort, these changes have likely reduced the availability and quality of pack ice denning habitat. Further declines in sea ice availability are predicted. Therefore, we expect the proportion of polar bears denning in coastal areas will continue to increase, until such time as the autumn ice retreats far enough from shore that it precludes offshore pregnant females from reaching the Alaska coast in advance of denning.     

Den-Site Characteristics of Black Bears in Rocky Mountain National Park,Colorado

Abstract: We compared historic (1985–1992) and contemporary (2003–2006) black bear (Ursus americanus) den locations in Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP), Colorado, USA, for habitat and physiographic attributes of den sites and used maximum entropy modeling to determine which factors were most influential in predicting den-site locations. We observed variability in the relationship between den locations and distance to trails and elevation over time. Locations of historic den sites were most associated with slope, elevation, and covertype, whereas contemporary sites were associated with slope, distance to roads, aspect, and canopy height. Although relationships to covariates differed between historic and contemporary periods, preferred den-site characteristics consistently included steep slopes and factors associated with greater snow depth. Distribution of den locations shifted toward areas closer to human developments, indicating little negative influence of this factor on den-site selection by black bears in RMNP.     

Hierarchical Den Selection of Canada Lynx in Western Montana

Abstract We studied den selection of Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis; hereafter lynx) at multiple ecological scales based on 57 dens from 19 females located in western Montana, USA, between 1999 and 2006. We considered 3 spatial scales in this analysis, including den site (11-m-radius circle surrounding dens), den area (100-m-radius circle), and den environ (1-km radius surrounding dens). Lynx denned in preexisting sheltered spaces created by downed logs (62%), root-wads from wind-thrown trees (19%), boulder fields (10%), slash piles (6%), and live trees (4%). Lynx preferentially selected den sites with northeasterly aspects that averaged 248. Average distance between dens of 13 females monitored in consecutive years was 2,248 m, indicating low den site fidelity. Lynx exhibited habitat selection at all 3 spatial scales. Based on logistic regression, den sites differed from the surrounding den areas in having higher horizontal cover and log volume. Abundant woody debris from piled logs was the dominant habitat feature at den sites. Lynx generally denned in mature spruce-fir (Picea-Abies) forests with high horizontal cover and abundant coarse woody debris. Eighty percent of dens were in mature forest stands and 13% in mid-seral regenerating stands; young regenerating (5%) and thinned (either naturally sparse or mechanically thinned) stands with discontinuous canopies (2%) were seldom used. Female lynx selected den areas with greater spruce-fir tree basal area, higher horizontal cover, and larger-diameter trees compared to random locations within their home range. Lynx selected den environs in topographically concave or drainage-like areas, and farther from forest edges than random expectation. Maintaining mature and mid-seral regenerating spruce-fir forests with high horizontal cover and abundant woody debris would be most valuable for denning when located in drainages or in concave, drainage-like basins. Management actions that alter spruce-fir forests to a condition that is sparsely stocked (e.g., mechanically thinned) and with low canopy closure (<50%) would create forest conditions that are poorly suitable for lynx denning.     

Spatial Heterogeneity in Human Activities Favors the Persistence of Wolves in Agroecosystems

As human populations expand, there is increasing demand and pressure for land. Under this scenario, behavioural flexibility and adaptation become important processes leading to the persistence of large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes such as agroecosystems. A growing interest has recently emerged on the outcome of the coexistence between wolves and humans in these systems. It has been suggested that spatial heterogeneity in human activities would be a major environmental factor modulating vulnerability and persistence of this contentious species in agroecosystems. Here, we combined information from 35 den sites detected between 2011 and 2012 in agroecosystems of western Iran (Hamedan province), a set of environmental variables measured at landscape and fine spatial scales, and generalized linear models to identify patterns of den site selection by wolves in a highly-modified agroecosystem. On a landscape level, wolves selected a mixture of rangelands with scattered dry-farms on hillsides (showing a low human use) to locate their dens, avoiding areas with high densities of settlements and primary roads. On a fine spatial scale, wolves primarily excavated dens into the sides of elevated steep-slope hills with availability of water bodies in the vicinity of den sites, and wolves were relegated to dig in places with coarse-soil particles. Our results suggest that vulnerability of wolves in human-dominated landscapes could be compensated by the existence of spatial heterogeneity in human activities. Such heterogeneity would favor wolf persistence in agroecosystems favoring a land sharing model of coexistence between wolves and people.     

Denning ecology of Molina's hog-nosed skunk in a farmland area in the Pampas grassland of Argentina

This paper reports the very first data on the denning habits of the little-studied Molina’s hog-nosed skunk (Conepatus chinga). We identified and characterized 240 (males: n = 92, females: n = 148) den sites used by nine radio-tracked skunks from November 2002 to October 2003 and from December 2005 to October 2007. Most dens were found in underground burrows and we found no variation in dimensions of den entrances across seasons. On average, 24.1% of the den sites were reused by C. chinga. Den sites were not homogeneously distributed within an animal's home range, being the density in core areas greater than in proximity to the borders of home ranges. C. chinga selected specific habitat characteristics for their den sites, such as high shrub and grass cover. Accordingly, the habitats preferred by skunks were native grasslands and pastures. Also, C. chinga preferred den sites located close to fences, roads, and grass patches. We argue that these preferences for den sites may provide two, not mutually exclusive, advantages: access to consistent and predictable sources of food, and protection from predators. Our results suggest that availability of semi-natural grassland and pasture areas may favor the conservation of C. chinga in the human-modified landscapes of the Pampas.     

The importance of fine-scale breeding site selection patterns under a landscape-sharing approach for wolf conservation

For large carnivores persisting in human-dominated landscapes, conservation planning is often hindered by the large spatial requirements of these species, availability of protected areas, and human land uses. Protected areas are usually too small to support viable populations, and scattered across a human land-use matrix. Therefore, large carnivore conservation should be planned at large spatial scales under a land-sharing approach (allowing the coexistence between large carnivores and people in the same landscape), which means increasing the focus on the human-dominated matrix. Most of the critical factors determining large carnivore persistence (i.e., those related to food availability and vulnerability to humans) interact synergistically in space and time during the breeding season. Here, using as a case study a wolf population in NW Iberia, we studied fine-scale breeding site selection patterns (1 and 9 km²) in relation to human pressure, and the availability of food and refuge. The selection of wolf breeding sites in this human-dominated landscape was not determined by potential availability of prey biomass in the immediate vicinity (1 km²). However, wolves selected breeding sites with high availability of refuge (concealing vegetation), and low human accessibility and activity levels. Paved roads showed the highest proportion of independent contribution to explaining breeding site selection patterns (negative influence), being followed by refuge availability (positive influence) and the remoteness of breeding sites in relation to the surrounding spatial context (positive influence). Refuge availability, even at very small spatial scales taking into account the spatial requirements of wolves, may compensate for moderate levels of human activities in the vicinity of breeding sites. The strength of breeding selection patterns varied along a hierarchical process at different spatial scales. Under a landscape-sharing approach, integrating key processes observed in the human-dominated matrix, such as breeding site selection patterns, into landscape planning is of paramount importance for carnivore conservation. By temporally restricting human use on breeding sites and small portions of surrounding lands (~ 1 km²), and by maintaining several small refuge areas interspersed within the human-dominated matrix, we could favor wolf persistence without reducing land availability for other uses, improving the conditions for coexistence between wolves and humans.     

武汉市城区苔藓植物多样性和分布及与环境因子的关系

对武汉市7个中心城区和部分远郊城区共26个样点73个样地的苔藓群落进行调查,采集苔藓植物样本共431份。经鉴定调查区内共有苔藓植物20科35属91种,其中狭叶小羽藓（Haplocladium angustifolium（Hampe et C.Muell.）Broth.）和钝叶绢藓（Entodon obtusatus Broth.）等为优势种,分布于其中的24个样点。多样性指数分析结果显示,位于青龙山国家森林公园的α多样性Patrick和Shannon-Wiener指数最高,说明该样点苔藓植物群落的复杂程度高,群落所含信息量大。Patrick指数与环境因子的Pearson相关性分析结果显示,土壤含水率和与主要干道距离是显著影响地面生苔藓植物多样性的环境因子,而显著影响树附生苔藓植物多样性的环境因子仅与距主要干道距离相关。用典范对应分析法（CCA）研究26个样点中苔藓植物的盖度与主要环境因子的关系,结果发现人为干扰程度、草本盖度、与城市主要干道的距离等对地面生和树附生苔藓植物的分布都有显著影响。其中地面生苔藓植物的分布受人为干扰和草本盖度影响最为显著;而树附生苔藓植物的分布受附生树干胸径及与主要干道距离影响最为显著。研究结果表明武汉市区苔藓植物的多样性和分布受人为干扰较大,树附生苔藓对汽车尾气等因素更为敏感。     

Resting in risky environments: the importance of cover for wolves to cope with exposure risk in human-dominated landscapes

Centuries of persecution have influenced the behaviour of large carnivores. For those populations persisting in human-dominated landscapes, complete spatial segregation from humans is not always possible, as they are in close contact with people even when they are resting. The selection of resting sites is expected to be critical for large carnivore persistence in human-dominated landscapes, where resting sites must offer protection to counteract exposure risk. Using wolves (Canis lupus) as a model species, we hypothesised that selection of resting sites by large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes will be not only influenced by human activities, but also strongly determined by cover providing concealment. We studied the fine-scale attributes of 546 wolf resting sites and confronted them to 571 random points in NW Iberia. Half of resting sites (50.8 %) were found in forests (mainly forest plantations, 73.1 %), 43.4 % in scrublands, and only 5.8 % in croplands. Compared to random points, wolves located their resting sites far away from paved and large unpaved roads and from settlements, whereas they significantly selected areas with high availability of horizontal (refuge) and canopy cover. The importance of refuge was remarkably high, with its independent contribution alone being more important than the contribution of all the variables related to human pressure (distances) pooled (51.1 vs 42.8 %, respectively). The strength of refuge selection allowed wolves even to rest relatively close to manmade structures, such as roads and settlements (sometimes less than 200 m). Maintaining high-quality refuge areas becomes an important element to favour the persistence of large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes as well as human-carnivore coexistence, which can easily be integrated in landscape planning.     

An evaluation of the level of human disturbance to waterbirds at Mole National Park in Ghana

Anthropogenic activities including recreation were known to cause disturbances to waterbirds in their natural habitat. The Mole National Park, which is considered the largest and oldest in Ghana, attracted significant number of tourists over the years, and consequently induced pressures and disturbances to waterbirds. Thus, there is a need to study the human-wildlife interactions and conflicts. This study established the species list of waterbirds at Mole between August 2015 and February 2016, assessed the nature and levels of human disturbance to the birds and determined the alert and flight initiation distances of selected species. A total of 29 waterbird species were recorded of which White-faced Whistling Duck was the most abundant. At a flush rate of 2.5 per hour with each flush lasting 34.0 s, waterbirds at the park spend 85.0 s/h as a result of flushing of which only 17.6 s/h was attributed to human disturbance. Majority of the flushes (70.5%) were caused by indeterminate factors but the potential adverse impact of human induced flushing and the need to minimize or prevent increased rates in the park was indicated by birds perceiving disturbance from tourist/staff to be of the same risk as predation. It was recommended that a setback distance based on the longest Alert Distance (120.8 ± 31.9 m) and Flight Initiation Distance (32.7 ± 23.8 m), both of which were recorded for the Grey Heron, should be considered in the management of the park’s wetlands.