Facilitated diffusion properties of melibiose permease in Escherichia coli membrane vesicles. Release of co-substrates is rate limiting for permease cycling

The mechanism of melibiose symport by the melibiose permease of Escherichia coli was studied by looking at the modifications of the facilitated diffusion properties of the permease which arise upon substitution of the coupled cations (H+, Na+, or Li+). Kinetic analysis of melibiose influx and efflux down a concentration gradient, exchange at equilibrium, and counterflow were examined in de-energized membrane vesicles resuspended in media allowing melibiose to be co-transported with either H+, Na+, or Li+. The data show that the maximal rates of melibiose efflux coupled to either H+, Na+, or Li+ are between 10 and 40 times faster than the corresponding influxes. This suggests that the permease functions asymmetrically. Cross-comparison between the rates of net [3H]melibiose entry during the influx reactions coupled to either cation and corresponding unidirectional sugar inflow during exchange and counterflow reactions leads to the conclusions that: 1) the step involving release of the co-substrates from the permease on the inner surface of the membrane is sequenced (sugar first and then coupled cation); 2) this step is rate determining for cycling of the permease. The Na+-melibiose passive flux data indicate in particular that release of Na+ ions rather than release of sugar into the intravesicular space is the slowest step during permease cycling. This property would hamper net passive Na+-melibiose influx but should allow exchange of sugar without concomitant exchange of the coupled cation. Finally, evidence is provided suggesting that the relative rates of release of the two co-substrates from the permease on the inner membrane surface varied considerably in relation to the identity of the coupled cation.     

Sugar binding properties of the melibiose permease in Escherichia coli membrane vesicles. Effects of Na+ and H+ concentrations

The substrate binding reaction of the melibiose carrier was analyzed by studying [3H]p-nitrophenyl-alpha-D-galactopyranoside (Np alpha Gal) binding to de-energized membrane vesicles from Escherichia coli RA11 as a function of H+ and Na+ (or Li+) concentrations. The data indicate first that Na+ (or Li+) activates Np alpha Gal binding at all pH values tested between 5.5 and 7.5 and second that H+ inhibits the Na+ (or Li+)-dependent activating effect on Np alpha Gal binding. Similar conclusions were drawn for melibiose and methyl-1-thio-beta-D-galactoside binding activities. Unexpectedly, Np alpha Gal, melibiose, and methyl-1-thio-beta-D-galactoside binding activities are insensitive to a variety of SH reagents which completely block transport activity. Quantitative analysis of the effects of H+ and Na+ ions on the parameters of Np alpha Gal binding show that 1) the maximal number of binding sites is constant irrespective of the concentration of Na+ or Li+ in the range of pH between 6 and 7.5 and 2) the apparent dissociation constant for Np alpha Gal binding varies with both Na+ and H+ according to a relation described by a linear combination of the concentration of H+ and the reciprocal of Na+ concentration. These results can be accounted for by a model which assumes sequential binding of the cation and substrate in this order and competition between Na+ and H+ for a common cationic binding site on the porter. Predictions of the proposed binding model for a carrier mechanism catalyzing sugar transport according to a Na+ symport mode or a H+ symport mode are discussed.     

Cation coupling to melibiose transport in Salmonella typhimurium.

Melibiose transport in Salmonella typhimurium was investigated. Radioactive melibiose was prepared and the melibiose transport system was characterized. Na+ and Li+ stimulated transport of melibiose by lowering the Km value without affecting the Vmax value; Km values were 0.50 mM in the absence of Na+ or Li+ and 0.12 mM in the presence of 10 mM NaCl or 10 mM LiCl. The Vmax value was 140 nmol/min per mg of protein. Melibiose was a much more effective substrate than methyl-beta-thiogalactoside. An Na+-melibiose cotransport mechanism was suggested by three types of experiments. First, the influx of Na+ induced by melibiose influx was observed with melibiose-induced cells. Second, the efflux of H+ induced by melibiose influx was observed only in the presence of Na+ or Li+, demonstrating the absence of H+-melibiose cotransport. Third, either an artificially imposed Na+ gradient or membrane potential could drive melibiose uptake in cells. Formation of an Na+ gradient in S. typhimurium was shown to be coupled to H+ by three methods. First, uncoupler-sensitive extrusion of Na+ was energized by respiration or glycolysis. Second, efflux of H+ induced by Na+ influx was detected. Third, a change in the pH gradient was elicited by imposing an Na+ gradient in energized membrane vesicles. Thus, it is concluded that the mechanism for Na+ extrusion is an Na+/H+ antiport. The Na+/H+ antiporter is a transformer which converts an electrochemical H+ gradient to an Na+ gradient, which then drives melibiose transport. Li+ was inhibitory for the growth of cells when melibiose was the sole carbon source, even though Li+ stimulated melibiose transport. This suggests that high intracellular Li+ may be harmful.     

H + -substrate cotransport by the melibiose membrane carrier in Escherichia coli

Proton entry into anaerobic Escherichia coli in response to the addition of HCl was measured by monitoring pH changes in the external solution. Preincubation of cells in a Na+ -free medium containing melibiose or methyl-alpha-galactoside (alpha MG) stimulated the rate of H+ entry in response to the acid pulse. This melibiose- or alpha MG-dependent proton pathway appeared to be identical to the melibiose carrier, since the channel was only observed in melibiose-induced cells. Furthermore, this membrane pathway for protons showed the same temperature sensitivity as the melibiose carrier (active at 30 degrees but inactive at 37 degrees). These observations are consistent with the idea that the melibiose transport system provides a pathway for protons in the presence of appropriate substrates, but that the pathway is closed to protons in the absence of the sugar. Such observations indicate that there is an obligatory coupling between H+ flux and melibiose or alpha MG flux through the carrier when Na+ is omitted from the incubation medium.     

Primary structure and characteristics of the melibiose carrier of Klebsiella pneumoniae.

The melB gene coding for the melibiose carrier of Klebsiella pneumoniae was cloned and sequenced. There were two potential translation initiation sites. It was predicted that the melibiose carrier consists of 471 (or 467) amino acid residues. Seventy-eight percent of the 471 amino acids were identical to the Escherichia coli melibiose carrier. Sugar transport characteristics were studied using an E. coli mel- mutant expressing cloned K. pneumoniae melB gene. Accumulation of melibiose via the K. pneumoniae melibiose carrier was not stimulated by adding NaCl or LiCl which stimulates melibiose accumulation via the E. coli melibiose carrier. Lactose was accumulated only in the presence of LiCl. TMG (methyl-1-thio-beta-D-galactopyranoside) was accumulated in the absence of added NaCl or LiCl. The accumulation was stimulated by LiCl but not by NaCl. Rapid H+ uptake was observed when melibiose or TMG was added to cell suspensions. These results suggest that the preferred cation couplings via K. pneumoniae melibiose carrier are H(+)-melibiose, Li(+)-lactose, and H+/Li(+)-TMG. This coupling spectrum is quite different from that of the E. coli melibiose carrier. It is of special interest that the K. pneumoniae melibiose carrier seems to be lacking the ability to recognize Na+ which is a preferred coupling cation of the E. coli melibiose carrier for all known sugar substrates. Further investigation of these two carriers may give us insight into the Na+ recognition site.     

Mechanism of the melibiose porter in membrane vesicles of Escherichia coli

The melibiose transport system of Escherichia coli catalyzes sodium--methyl 1-thio-beta-D-galactopyranoside (TMG) symport, and the cation is required not only for respiration-driven active transport but also for binding of substrate to the carrier in the absence of energy and for carrier-mediated TMG efflux. As opposed to the proton--beta-galactoside symport system [Kaczorowski, G. J., & Kaback, H. R. (1979) Biochemistry 18, 3691], efflux and exchange of TMG occur at the same rate, implying that the rates of the two processes are limited by a common step, most likely the translocation of substrate across the membrane. Furthermore, the rate of exchange, as well as efflux, is influenced by imposition of a membrane potential (delta psi; interior negative), suggesting that the ternary complex between sodium, TMG, and the porter may bear a net positive charge. Consistently, energization of the vesicles leads to a large increase in the Vmax for TMG influx, with little or no change in the apparent Km of the process. It is proposed that the sodium gradient (Na+out < Na+in) and the delta psi (interior negative) may affect different steps in the overall mechanism of active TMG accumulation in the following manner: the sodium gradient causes an increased affinity for TMG on the outer surface of the membrane relative to the inside and the delta psi facilitates a reaction involved with the translocation of the positively charged ternary complex to the inner surface of the membrane.     

Escherichia coli mutants possessing an Li+-resistant melibiose carrier.

Escherichia coli K-12 strains in the absence of the lactose carrier grew on the disaccharide melibiose as the sole source of carbon. The presence of 0.1 mM Li+ in the medium strongly inhibited growth of such cells, and Li+-resistant mutants appeared after several days of incubation. These mutants showed altered cation coupling to melibiose transport via the melibiose carrier. Cotransport between H+ and melibiose was lost in the mutants, although Na+-melibiose cotransport was retained. We observed no Li+-melibiose cotransport. Therefore, these mutants represent a new type of cation-coupling mutants of the melibiose carrier.     

On the mechanism of amiloride-sensitive nonelectrogenic Na+-H+ exchange in cell membranes: Na+/H+ antiport or Na+/OH- symport?

The amiloride-sensitive and nonelectrogenic Na+-H+ exchange system of eucaryotic cells is currently a topic of great interest. The results of membrane transport in the presence of protons are shown to be similar in two cases: when H+ is transferred in one direction or OH- -in the opposite direction. Therefore, in principle Na+-H+ exchange can be performed by two different mechanisms: Na+/H+ antiport or Na+/OH- symport. However, the kinetic properties of these mechanisms turn out to be quite different. The present study analyses the simplest models of antiport and symport and delineates their important differences. For this purpose the Lineweaver-Burk plot presented as Na+ reverse flow entering a cell 1/JNa (or H+ leaving a cell) versus the reverse concentration of Na+ outside 1/[Na+]0 is most useful. If a series of lines with external pH as a parameter have a common point of intersection placed on the ordinate, it indicates the availability of Na+/H+ antiport. In case of Na+/OH- symport a point of intersection is shifted to the left of the ordinate axis. According to data available in the literature, Na+/H+ antiport manifests itself in dog kidney cells and in hamster lung fibroblasts. In the skeletal muscles of chicken and in rat thymus lymphocytes however, a Na+/OH- symport is apparently present.     

Lithium ion-sugar cotransport via the melibiose transport system in Escherichia coli. Measurement of Li+ transport and specificity

A lithium ion-selective electrode was constructed using N,N'-diheptyl-N,N'-5,5-tetramethyl-3,7-dioxanonandiamid as a Li+ ionophore. Lithium ion-sugar cotransport via the melibiose transport system was measured with this electrode. Influx of methyl-beta-D-thiogalactoside, methyl-alpha-D-galactoside, methyl-beta-D-galactoside, and D-galactose elicited uptake of Li+. This Li+ uptake was not observed when the melibiose carrier was not present in the cells or the carrier was inactivated. Melibiose caused a small amount of Li+ uptake, indicating that Li+-melibiose cotransport proceeds inefficiently. Raffinose, another substrate, did not cause detectable Li+ transport. In mutant cells which showed altered cation coupling (Niiya, S., Yamasaki, K., Wilson, T. H., and Tsuchiya, T. (1982) J. Biol. Chem. 257, 8902-8906), Li+-melibiose cotransport was clearly demonstrated. Alteration in substrate specificity was also shown in the mutants.     

Role of Na+ and Li+ in thiomethylgalactoside transport by the melibiose transport system of Escherichia coli.

Thiomethyl-beta-galactoside (TMG) accumulation via the melibiose transport system was studied in lactose transport-negative strains of Escherichia coli. TMG uptake by either intact cells or membrane vesicles was markedly stimulated by Na+ or Li+ between pH 5.5 and 8. The Km for uptake of TMG was approximately 0.2 mM at an external Na+ concentration of 5 mM (pH 7). The alpha-galactosides, melibiose, methyl-alpha-galactoside, and o-nitrophenyl-alpha-galactoside had a high affinity for this system whereas lactose, maltose and glucose had none. Evidence is presented for Li+-TMG or Na+-TMG cotransport.     

The lactose/H+ carrier of Escherichia coli: lac YUN mutation decreases the rate of active transport and mimics an energy-uncoupled phenotype.

The Escherichia coli K12 strain X71-54 carries the lac YUN allele, coding for a lactose/H+ carrier defective in the accumulation of a number of galactosides [Wilson, Kusch & Kashket (1970) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 40, 1409-1414]. Previous studies proposed that the lower accumulation in the mutant be due to a faulty coupling of H+ and galactoside fluxes via the carrier. Immunochemical characterization of the carriers in membranes from mutant and parent strains with an antibody directed against the C-terminal decapeptide of the wild-type carrier leads to the conclusion that the mutant carrier is similar to the wild-type in terms of apparent Mr, C-terminal sequence, and level of incorporation into the membrane. The pH-dependence of galactoside transport was compared in the mutant and the parent. At pH 8.0-9.0, mutant and parent behave similarly with respect to the accumulation of beta-D-galactosyl 1-thio-beta-D-galactoside and to the ability to grow on the carrier substrate melibiose. At pH 6.0, both the maximal velocity for active transport and the level of accumulation of beta-D-galactosyl-1-thio-beta-D-galactoside are lower in the mutant. The mutant also is unable to grow on melibiose at pH 5.5. However, at pH 6.0 and low galactoside concentrations, the symport stoichiometry is 0.90 H+ per galactoside in the mutant as compared with 1.07 in the parent. These observations suggest that symport is normal in the mutant and that the lower rate of transport in the mutant is responsible for the phenotype. At higher galactoside concentrations, accumulation is determined not only thermodynamically but also kinetically, contrary to a simple interpretation of the chemiosmotic theory. Therefore lower rates of active transport can mimic the effect of uncoupling H+ and galactoside symport. Examination of countertransport in poisoned cells at pH 6.0 reveals that the rate constants for the reorientation of the loaded and unloaded carrier are altered in the mutant. The reorientation of the unloaded carrier is slower in the mutant. However, the reorientation of the galactoside-H+-carrier complex is slower for substrates like melibiose, but faster for substrates like lactose. These findings suggest that lactose-like and melibiose-like substrates interact with the carrier in slightly different ways.     

Role of Gly117 in the cation/melibiose symport of MelB of Salmonella typhimurium

The melibiose permease of Salmonella typhimurium (MelB(St)) catalyzes symport of melibiose with Na(+), Li(+), or H(+), and bioinformatics analysis indicates that a conserved Gly117 (helix IV) is part of the Na(+)-binding site. We mutated Gly117 to Ala, Pro, Trp, or Arg; the effects on melibiose transport and binding of cosubstrates depended on the physical-chemical properties of the side chain. Compared with WT MelB(St), the Gly117 → Ala mutant exhibited little difference in either cosubstrate binding or stimulation of melibiose transport by Na(+) or Li(+), but all other mutations reduced melibiose active transport and efflux, and decreased the apparent affinity for Na(+). The bulky Trp at position 117 caused the greatest inhibition of melibiose binding, and Gly117 → Arg yielded less than a 4-fold decrease in the apparent affinity for melibiose at saturating Na(+) or Li(+) concentration. Remarkably, the mutant Gly117 → Arg catalyzed melibiose exchange in the presence of Na(+) or Li(+), but did not catalyze melibiose translocation involving net flux of the coupling cation, indicating that sugar is released prior to release of the coupling cation. Taken together, the findings are consistent with the notion that Gly117 plays an important role in cation binding and translocation.     

Mechanism of proline transport in Escherichia coli K12. III. Inhibition of membrane potential-driven proline transport by syn-coupled ions and evidence for symmetrical transition states of the 2H+/proline symport carrier

Specific inhibition of 2H+/proline symport by syn-coupled ions (Na+, Li+, and H+) was investigated using cytoplasmic membrane vesicles prepared from the proline carrier-overproducing strain MinS/ pLC4 -45 of Escherichia coli K12. The 2H+/proline symport driven by the membrane potential generated via respiration with 20 mM ascorbate/Tris, 0.1 mM phenazine methosulfate was specifically inhibited by Na+. The inhibition by Na+ was described by a fully noncompetitive mechanism, and the apparent Ki for Na+ was 15 mM. A linear correlation between the apparent Vmax and the apparent Kd was observed. Li+ stimulated the transport activity 2-fold at 10 mM and inhibited it at concentrations above 50 mM. H+ caused fully noncompetitive inhibition of 2H+/proline symport, and its apparent Ki was 0.6 microM. These results indicate that the concentrations of Na+ and H+ strictly and independently regulate the amount of the active C state carrier responsible for 2H+/proline symport driven by the membrane potential by inhibiting the transition from the C* state carrier which exhibits Na+- and H+-dependent binding of proline and is predominant in nonenergized conditions.     

Role of N-linked oligosaccharides in the transport activity of the Na+/H+ antiporter in rat renal brush-border membrane

The role of N-linked oligosaccharide side chains in the biogenesis and function of Na+-coupled transporters in renal luminal brush-border membrane (BBM) is not known. We examined the question of how in vivo inhibition by alkaloid swainsonine of alpha-mannosidase, a key enzyme in processing of glycoproteins in the Golgi apparatus, affects Na+/H+ antiport and Na+/Pi symport as well as activities of other transporters and enzymes in rat renal BBM. Administration of swainsonine to thyroparathyroidectomized rats, control or treated with 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine, markedly decreased the rate of Na+/H+ antiport, but had no effect on the rate of Na+/Pi symport across renal BBM vesicles (BBMV). Moreover, administration of swainsonine did not change activities of Na+ gradient, ([extravesicular Na+] greater than [intravesicular Na+])-dependent transport of D-glucose, L-proline, or the amiloride-insensitive 22Na+ uptake by BBMV; the activities of the BBM enzymes alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyltransferase, or leucine aminopeptidase in BBMV were also not changed. The in vitro enzymatic deglycosylation of BBM by incubating freshly isolated BBMV with bacterial endoglycosidase F also resulted in a decreased rate of Na+/H+ antiport, but not Na+-coupled symports of Pi, L-proline, and D-glucose, or the activities of the BBM enzymes were not significantly affected. Similar incubation with endoglycosidase H was without effect on any of these parameters. Both the modification of BBMV glycoproteins by administration fo swainsonine in vivo as well as the in vitro incubation of BBMV with endoglycosidase F resulted in a decrease of the apparent Vmax of Na+/H+ antiport, but did not change the apparent Km of this antiporter for extravesicular Na+ and did not increase H+ conductance of BBM. Taken together, our findings suggest that intact N-linked oligosaccharide chains of the biantennary complex type in renal BBM glycoproteins are required, directly or indirectly, for the transport function of the Na+/H+ antiporter inserted into BBM of renal proximal tubules.     

The melibiose/Na+ symporter of Escherichia coli: kinetic and molecular properties

The role of the co-transported cation in the coupling mechanism of the melibiose permease of Escherichia coli has been investigated by analysing its sugar-binding activity, facilitated diffusion reactions and energy-dependent transport reactions catalysed by the carrier functioning either as an H+, Na+ or Li(+)-sugar symporter. The results suggest that the coupling cation not only acts as an activator for sugar-binding on the carrier but also regulates the rate of dissociation of the co-substrates in the cytoplasm by controlling the stability of the ternary complex cation-sugar-carrier facing the cell interior. Furthermore, there is some evidence that the membrane potential enhances the rate of symport activity by increasing the rate of dissociation of the co-substrates from the carrier in the cellular compartment. Identification of the melibiose permease as a membrane protein of 39 kDa by using a T7 RNA polymerase/promoter expression system is described. Site-directed mutagenesis has been used to replace individual carrier histidine residues by arginine to probe the functional contribution of each of the seven histidine residues to the symport mechanism. Only substitution of arginine for His94 greatly interferes with the carrier function. It is finally shown that mutations affecting the glutamate residue in position 361 inactivate translocation of the co-substrates but not their recognition by the permease.     

Reconstitution of the melibiose carrier of Escherichia coli

Different conditions were studied for optimal solubilization and reconstitution of the melibiose carrier of Escherichia coli. Several alpha- and beta-galactosides, known to be substrates for the melibiose carrier, were found to inhibit [3H]-melibiose uptake by proteoliposomes. In the presence of 10 mM Na+ the Km for melibiose counterflow was 0.42 mM. Melibiose and raffinose were good substrates for counterflow, while thiomethyl-beta-galactoside and p-nitrophenyl-alpha-galactoside were accumulated very poorly. Although the latter two sugars are known to be substrates for the carrier, they showed a very rapid rate of passive diffusion across the liposome membrane. The proton ionophore carbonylcyanidechlorophenylhydrazone had no effect on uptake, suggesting that a proton motive force is not essential for the counterflow phenomenon.     

Cation-sugar cotransport in the melibiose transport system of Escherichia coli.

The entry of Na+ or H+ into cells of Escherichia coli via the melibiose transport system was stimulated by the addition of certain galactosides. The principal cell used in these studies (W3133) was a lactose transport negative strain of E. coli possessing an inducible melibiose transport system. Such cells were grown in the presence of melibiose, washed, and incubated in the presence of 25 microM Na+. The addition of thiomethylgalactoside (TMG) resulted in a fall in Na+ concentration in the incubation medium. No TMG-stimulated Na+ movement was observed in uninduced cells. In an alpha-galactosidase negative derivative of W3133 (RA11) a sugar-stimulated Na+ uptake was observed in melibiose-induced cells on the addition of melibiose, thiodigalactoside, methyl-alpha-galactoside, methyl-beta-galactoside, and galactose, but not lactose. It was inferred from these studies that the substrates of the melibiose system enter the cell on the melibiose carrier associated with the simultaneous entry of Na+ when this cation is present in the incubation medium. Extracellular pH was measured in unbuffered suspensions of induced cells in order to study proton movement across the membrane of cells exposed to different galactosides. In the absence of external Na+ or Li+ the addition of melibiose or methyl-alpha-galactoside resulted in marked alkalinization of the external medium (consistent with H+-sugar cotransport). On the other hand TMG, thiodigalactoside, and methyl-beta-galactoside gave no proton movement under these conditions. When Na+ was present, the addition of TMG or melibiose resulted in acidification of the medium. This observation is consistent with the view that the entry of Na+ with TMG or melibiose carries into the cell a positive charge (Na+) which provides the driving force for the diffusion of protons out of the cell. It is concluded that the melibiose carrier recognition of cations differs with different substrates.     

Melibiose permease of Escherichia coli. Characteristics of co-substrates release during facilitated diffusion reactions

The mechanism of melibiose symport by the melibiose permease of Escherichia coli was investigated by further analyzing the Na+ (H+ or Li+)-coupled facilitated diffusion reactions catalyzed by the carrier in de-energized membrane vesicles, with particular emphasis on the reaction of sugar exchange at equilibrium. It is first shown that melibiose exchange at equilibrium proceeds without concomitant movement of Na+, i.e. the coupled cation is kinetically occluded during the melibiose exchange reaction. These results provide further experimental support for the model of Na+ sugar co-transport of the physiological substrate melibiose previously suggested (Bassilana, M., Pourcher, T., and Leblanc, G. (1987) J. Biol. Chem. 262, 16865-16870) in which: 1) the mechanisms of co-substrate binding to (or release from) the carrier are ordered processes on both the outer (Na+ first, sugar last) and inner membrane surfaces (sugar first, Na+ last) and give rise to a mirror-type model; 2) release of Na+ from the carrier on the inner membrane surface is very slow and rate-limiting for carrier cycling but is fast on the opposite side, contributing to the asymmetrical functioning of the permease. On the other hand, analysis of the exchange of identical sugars (homologous exchange) and different sugar analogs (heterologous exchange) indicates that the overall rate of sugar exchange reaction coupled to Na+ or Li+ is limited by the rate of one (or more) partial step(s) associated with the inflow of co-substrates and most probably by the rate of sugar release into the intravesicular medium. It is proposed that the variability of the facilitated diffusion reactions catalyzed by the carrier in the presence of different coupled cations and/or sugar analogs reflects variations in the rate of co-substrate release from the carrier on the inner membrane surface.     

Melibiose permease of Escherichia coli: mutation of aspartic acid 55 in putative helix II abolishes activation of sugar binding by Na+ ions

An aspartic residue (Asp55) located in the putative transmembrane alpha-helix II of the melibiose(mel) permease of Escherichia coli was replaced by Cys using oligonucleotide-directed, site-specific mutagenesis. Although D55C permease is expressed at 0.7 times the level of wild type permease, the mutated mel permease loses the ability to catalyse Na+ or H+ coupled melibiose transport against a concentration gradient. (3H) p-nitrophenyl-alpha-D-galactoside (NPG) binding studies demonstrated that D55C permease binds the sugar co-substrate but Na+ (or Li+) ions do no longer enhance the affinity of D55C permease for the co-transported sugar. In addition sugar binding on D55C permease but not on wild type permease is inactivated by sulfhydryl reagents and the inhibition protected by an excess of melibiose. These observations suggest 1) that the negatively-charged Asp55 residue, expected to be within the membrane embedded domain near the NH2 extremity of mel permease, is in or near the Na(+)-binding site and 2) that the cation and sugar binding sites may be overlapping.     

Electrogenic symport of glucose and protons in membrane vesicles of Phanerochaete chrysosporium

The white rot fungus, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, is one of the few organisms with documented ability to degrade lignin. Protoplasts from P. chrysosporium were disrupted by osmotic shock and membrane vesicles were isolated from the cell debris. The vesicles exhibit active glucose transport that is consistent with a glucose/H+ symport mechanism. An artificial gradient of H+ (outside greater than inside) stimulates glucose uptake. Conversely, a glucose gradient (outside greater than inside) results in the accumulation of H+ by the vesicles. Glucose uptake is not stimulated by either a Na+ or a K+ gradient. Furthermore, glucose transport is electrogenic, since glucose uptake may be driven by a membrane potential (negative interior) created by K+ diffusion mediated by valinomycin.