The Unfolding of Language as <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hysteron Proteron</Emphasis>: Heterochrony and Extended Connectivity

In this paper it is championed that a two stages hypothesis for the evolution of language must take into account a qualified approach to heterochrony and the available information from the archaeological record. As it seems, a protracted childhood and youth was already at work in Homo erectus, but early postnatal brain growth (usually called secondary altriciality) was only available to Homo sapiens. According to these facts, the term hysteron proteron is given here to the reversal that sets off linguistic capacity during the first three years of life, upon the ancient abilities for social, natural and technological knowledge, which were already established during the last 2 Mya BP. The unfolding of linguistic capacity creates the typical effect that ontogeny reverses phylogeny: since late postnatal brain growth, quite recent in evolution, launches in ontogeny before the phylogenetically old processes of playing and learning take place during childhood and youth. Full symbolic abilities may be explained as emerging from older semiotic competences based on iconicity (figuration) and indexicality (metonymy), which would have presumably sustained human life for millennia. Furthermore, it is argued that the formation of linguistic categories follows from that overlaying of extended connectivity linked to early postnatal brain growth, inasmuch as it entangles and transforms previous iconic and referential information: i.e. the ancient semiotic capacities for proprioception, embodiment, extended mimesis and pragmatic knowledge, shaping a sort of self-organization process that provides the formal and semantic properties we find in articulated languages.     

Self domestication and the evolution of language

We set out an account of how self-domestication plays a crucial role in the evolution of language. In doing so, we focus on the growing body of work that treats language structure as emerging from the process of cultural transmission. We argue that a full recognition of the importance of cultural transmission fundamentally changes the kind of questions we should be asking regarding the biological basis of language structure. If we think of language structure as reflecting an accumulated set of changes in our genome, then we might ask something like, “What are the genetic bases of language structure and why were they selected?” However, if cultural evolution can account for language structure, then this question no longer applies. Instead, we face the task of accounting for the origin of the traits that enabled that process of structure-creating cultural evolution to get started in the first place. In light of work on cultural evolution, then, the new question for biological evolution becomes, “How did those precursor traits evolve?” We identify two key precursor traits: (1) the transmission of the communication system through learning; and (2) the ability to infer the communicative intent associated with a signal or action. We then describe two comparative case studies—the Bengalese finch and the domestic dog—in which parallel traits can be seen emerging following domestication. Finally, we turn to the role of domestication in human evolution. We argue that the cultural evolution of language structure has its origin in an earlier process of self-domestication.     

Survival possibilities of the dragonfly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aeshna viridis</Emphasis> (Insecta,Odonata) in southern Sweden predicted from dispersal possibilities

We use public records from 1980 to 2014 to analyse survival of the EU Annex IV species Aeshna viridis in Sweden, a dragonfly strongly associated with the plant Stratiotes aloides. We clustered localities with S. aloides based on assumed dispersal abilities of A. viridis, using a dispersing radius of 2–100 km, calculating the proportion of sites with S. aloides that A. viridis is able to reach. If mean dispersal capability is high (40 km or above) 92.6 % or more of the localities are connected. For a good disperser, the probability of long-time survival is good. We further analysed the species richness of other Odonata and aquatic plants at 98 localities from the dataset. A. viridis co-occurred with more Odonata in the presence of S. aloides and running water but not in lakes. S. aloides sites had a higher number of other aquatic plants. Area had no impact on the occurrence of the species. For the present situation we surveyed 32 localities with known occurrence of the species. Only half of the sites for S. aloides contained any specimens while A. viridis occurred in the same number of sites. The species co-occurred in only 8 of 32 sites. In four sites A. viridis larvae appeared among Menyanthes trifoliata, Phragmites australis, Potamogeton natans and Sphagnum spp., indicating that at high latitudes A. viridis breeds among other species. Indirect monitoring based only on S. aloides would underestimate the number of populations of the dragonfly.     

Genesis and evolution of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Evx</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mox</Emphasis>genes and the extended Hox and ParaHox gene clusters

Background

Hox and ParaHox gene clusters are thought to have resulted from the duplication of a ProtoHox gene cluster early in metazoan evolution. However, the origin and evolution of the other genes belonging to the extended Hox group of homeobox-containing genes, that is, Mox and Evx, remains obscure. We constructed phylogenetic trees with mouse, amphioxus and Drosophila extended Hox and other related Antennapedia-type homeobox gene sequences and analyzed the linkage data available for such genes.

Results

We claim that neither Mox nor Evx is a Hox or ParaHox gene. We propose a scenario that reconciles phylogeny with linkage data, in which an Evx/Mox ancestor gene linked to a ProtoHox cluster was involved in a segmental tandem duplication event that generated an array of all Hox-like genes, referred to as the 'coupled' cluster. A chromosomal breakage within this cluster explains the current composition of the extended Hox cluster (with Evx, Hox and Mox genes) and the ParaHox cluster.

Conclusions

Most studies dealing with the origin and evolution of Hox and ParaHox clusters have not included the Hox-related genes Mox and Evx. Our phylogenetic analyses and the available linkage data in mammalian genomes support an evolutionary scenario in which an ancestor of Evx and Mox was linked to the ProtoHox cluster, and that a tandem duplication of a large genomic region early in metazoan evolution generated the Hox and ParaHox clusters, plus the cluster-neighbors Evx and Mox. The large 'coupled' Hox-like cluster EvxHox/MoxParaHox was subsequently broken, thus grouping the Mox and Evx genes to the Hox clusters, and isolating the ParaHox cluster.

     

Historical patterns of niche dynamics in Neotropical species of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila</Emphasis> subgenus (Drosophilidae,Diptera)

Niche conservatism (NC) presence is a controversial question in evolutionary ecology. In Drosophila, little is known about which is the preponderant evolutionary pattern, since the adaptive radiation hypothesis first proposed by Throckmorton assumed niche divergence (ND) according to a niche occupancy scenario. Nevertheless, this hypothesis has not yet been straightforwardly tested. Our aim here was to test the role of NC patterns across evolution of American drosophilids belonging to the tripunctata and virilis-repleta lineages of the Drosophila subgenus, through measures of geographical, abiotic and biotic niche overlap and evaluations regarding the presence of phylogenetic signal or niche identity. We recovered phylogenetic signal attributable to phylogenetic niche conservatism when all species were analyzed together, but not in more restricted groups. Identity tests showed that niche equivalency was seldom rejected for the tripunctata lineage species. So, in general, neither the results for the Drosophila subgenus nor those for the tripunctata lineage support the hypothesis of an adaptive radiation. Notwithstanding, there were also several isolated cases supporting a scenario of ND, and ecological speciation was evident in some of the evaluated sister species pairs.     

Early Cretaceous Enantiornithine Birds (Aves,Ornithothoraces) and Establishment of the Ornithuromorpha Morphological Type

New data on the taxonomic and morphological diversity of Early Cretaceous Enantiornithes are reviewed. A new hypothesis concerning the phylogenetic position of Pengornithidae is proposed. These birds traditionally treated as primitive enantiornithines may in fact be more closely related to Ornithuromorpha. This phylogenetic placement implies that the fan-shaped tail and modern-type humeral joint was formed once in the early evolution of birds. Hence, the similarity between Pengornithidae and other enantiornithines may be plesiomorphic. The ecology of Early Cretaceous enantiornithines is discussed. The increased mobility of neck in Holbotia is possibly accounted for by the cranioinertial swallowing mechanism, as in modern ratites. The hypotheses of scansorial adaptations in Parapengornis and Fortunguavis are criticized. In addition, the phylogenetic position of Mystiornis is discussed.     

Pathogen Transmission from Humans to Great Apes is a Growing Threat to Primate Conservation

All six great ape species are listed as endangered or critically endangered by the IUCN and experiencing decreasing population trends. One of the threats to these non-human primates is the transmission of pathogens from humans. We conducted a literature review on occurrences of pathogen transmission from humans to great apes to highlight this often underappreciated issue. In total, we found 33 individual occurrences of probable or confirmed pathogen transmission from humans to great apes: 23 involved both pathogen and disease transmission, 7 pathogen transmission only, 2 positive antibody titers to zoonotic pathogens, and 1 pathogen transmission with probable disease. Great ape populations were categorized into captive, semi-free-living, and free-living conditions. The majority of occurrences involved chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) (n = 23) or mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) (n = 8). These findings have implications for conservation efforts and management of endangered great ape populations. Future efforts should focus on monitoring and addressing zoonotic pathogen and disease transmission between humans, great ape species, and other taxa to ensure the health of humans, wild and domestic animals, and the ecosystems we share.     

Zoonotic Enterobacterial Pathogens Detected in Wild Chimpanzees

Infectious diseases including those acquired through direct or indirect contact with people and livestock threaten the survival of wild great apes. Few studies have reported enterobacterial pathogens in chimpanzees. We used multiplex PCR to screen faeces of chimpanzees sharing a landscape with villagers and livestock in Bulindi, Uganda for Salmonella spp., enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Shigella spp./enteroinvasive E. coli. All three potentially zoonotic pathogens were detected. Individual prevalence ranged between 7 and 20%, with most infections observed in mature male chimpanzees. These preliminary findings suggest detailed investigation of enterobacterial infections in people, primates and livestock in this ecosystem is warranted.     

Interspecies evolutionary divergence in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Liriodendron</Emphasis>, evidence from the nucleotide variations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">LcDHN-like</Emphasis> gene

Background

Liriodendron is a genus of Magnoliaceae, which consists of two relict species, Liriodendron chinense and L. tulipifera. Although the morphologies are highly similar, the two species exhibit different adaptive capacity. Dehydrins (DHNs) are abiotic stresses resistant proteins in planta, which are associated with adaptive evolution. To better understand the evolution divergence between L. chinense and L. tulipifera and how DHN genes are associated with adaptation evolution, we firstly investigated the DNA polymorphisms of the LcDHN-like gene in 21?L. chinense and 6?L. tulipifera populations.

Results

A 707?bp LcDHN-like gene was cloned, which included a 477?bp open reading frame (ORF) and coding 158 amino acids. 311 LcDHN-like gDNA sequences were obtained from 70?L. chinense and 35?L. tulipifera individuals. The AMOVA and phylogenetic relationship analysis showed significant differences between the two species. A higher genetic diversity was observed in L. tulipifera compared to L. chinense, in consistent with the higher adaptive capacity of L. tulipifera. Our data also suggested that the LcDHN-like genes’ polymorphisms were under neutral mutation and purifying selection model in the L. chinense and L. tulipifera populations, respectively. The distinct expanding range and rate between the two species, haplotypes shared only in L.chinense’s nearby populations, and wide dispersals in L. tulipifera could contribute to the obscure east-west separation in L. chinense and entirely unordered phylogeny in L. tulipifera. The completely separated nonsynonymous substitution at position 875 and the higher range scope of aliphatic index in L. tulipifera populations may be related with its higher adaptive capacity. Taken together, our study suggests LcDHN-like gene is a potential mark gene responsible for adaptive evolution divergence in Liriodendron.

Conclusions

Significant differences and completely distinct haplogroups between L. chinense and L. tulipifera showed that the two species have evolved into different directions. The more widely distribution, earlier haplogroups divergence events, and richer SNPs variations in L. tulipifera could imply its stronger adaptation in this species. And potential effect of the allelic variations in LcDHN-like gene may reflect the difference of water stress and chill tolerance between L. chinense and L. tulipifera, which could provide some information for further adaption evolution studies of Liriodendron.

     

Pheromones and phylogenetic relations of leafrollers (Lepidoptera,Tortricidae)

Changes in the number of carbon atoms and in the proportion between cis- and trans-isomers of the components of leafroller pheromones were studied. The evolution of pheromone components at the tribe level included the decrease in the number of carbon atoms and the increase in the fraction of trans-isomers. The pattern of changes in the cis- and trans-isomers ratio allows tracing the evolution of species within a single genus.     

Quinolone resistance phenotype and genetic characterization of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salmonella enterica</Emphasis> serovar Pullorum isolates in China,during 2011 to 2016

Background

Pullorum disease, caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Pullorum (S. Pullorum), is one of the most important bacterial infections in the poultry industry in developing countries, including China. To examine the prevalence and characteristics of S. Pullorum, the Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST) genotypes, fluoroquinolones resistance, and biofilm-forming abilities of S. Pullorum isolates were investigated, collected from 2011 to 2016 in China.

Results

Thirty S. Pullorum isolates collected from 2011 to 2016 were analyzed. Quinolones susceptibility testing showed that 90% of the isolates were resistant to the first generation of quinolines nalidixic acid, but the resistance rates to different fluoroquinolones agents were lower than 13.3%; for some there was even no resistance. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) showed that ST-92 was the dominating genotype, accounting for 90.0% of all S. pullorum strains. The remaining three isolates were of the new reported sequence type ST-2151. Interestingly, the Asp87Gly substitution in quinolone resistance-determining regions (QRDR) of GyrA was only observed in the three strains of ST-2151, suggesting a potential correlation between Asp87Gly substitution and sequence type (p?<?0.05). However, Asp87Gly substitution could not confer the resistant to ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin of these isolates. The plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR) gene was not found in any of the tested isolates. Furthermore, an assay measuring biofilm-forming abilities showed that 46.7% of the isolates were non-biofilm producers, while 53.3% could form very weak biofilms, which might explain the relatively lower resistance to fluoroquinolones.

Conclusions

We reported a high resistance rate to the first generation of quinolines nalidixic acid and relatively low resistance rates to fluoroquinolones in S. Pullorum isolates. In addition, weak biofilm-forming abilities were found, which might be an important reason of the low fluoroquinolones resistance rates of S. Pullorum isolates. ST-92 was the dominating genotype demonstrated by MLST, and the new sequence type ST-2151 showed a potential correlation with Asp87Gly substitution in QRDR of GyrA. We believe the characterization of these S. Pullorum isolates will be helpful to develop prevention and control strategies.

     

The fossil fallow deer <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dama geiselana</Emphasis> (Cervidae,Mammalia, upgrade to species level) in the context of migration and local extinctions of fallow deer in the Late and Middle Pleistocene in Europe

The fossil fallow deer Dama dama geiselana Pfeiffer from Neumark-Nord (Saxony-Anhalt, Germany) is upgraded to species level and discussed within the current taxonomy of recent and fossil fallow deer. Typical antler and skeletal characteristics are discussed in comparison with the recent Dama dama, Dama mesopotamica and the fossil species Dama clactoniana, Dama nestii and Dama rhenana. The phylogenetic relationship of fallow deer can be traced back to the Late Pliocene and distinguished morphologically from Cervus elaphus, Cervus nippon and Axis axis. Late and Middle Pleistocene finds from Germany are presented and discussed in the context of the finds from the Mediterranean region and Great Britain. The differences in antler morphology and bone dimensions in West German and North-East German fallow deer from the Late Pleistocene support the hypothesis of different immigration channels, on the one hand from the eastern Mediterranean along the Danube and on the other from the west along the Rhone and Rhine. In the Middle Pleistocene, Dama mesopotamica is considered as the typical fallow deer in the eastern Mediterranean, while in the west, Dama clactoniana is widespread. The hypothesis of immigration from the eastern Mediterranean is supported by the fossil record in Germany with the fallow deer from Edesheim. Conversely, Dama geiselana probably influenced East Mediterranean populations. Special tooth characteristics of Dama geiselana occur with lower frequency in Dama mesopotamica. In the Bronze Age, the fallow deer from Kastanas (Macedonia) shares antler characteristics, the high frequency of specific features of the scapula, and the astragalus with Dama geiselana. A relict population of Dama geiselana probably reached the Eastern Mediterranean at the beginning of the last cold stage.     

Thermal Preference of the Bush Cricket <Emphasis Type="Italic">Isophya rizeensis</Emphasis>; Testing the Effect of Countergradient Selection

Thermal preference is one of the most crucial components of behavioral thermoregulation in ectotherms, and documenting the adaptation of thermal preference carries great importance for studying the evolution of thermal biology. However there are not many studies focusing on the adaptation of thermal preference in elevational and latitudinal gradients. Isophya rizeensis is a color polymorphic bush cricket species endemic to the mountainous region of northeastern Turkey. Populations of this species are distributed in a wide elevational range between 350 and 2300 m. In this study, we hypothesized that the thermal preference of Isophya rizeensis might follow a countergradient variation where crickets from higher altitudes have higher temperature preferences compared to crickets from lower altitudes. To test this hypothesis, thermal preference values (T _pref ) of crickets from three altitudes groups (low, middle and high) were measured with a thermal gradient experiment. Additionally, body temperatures (T _b ) and environmental temperatures (T _a ) were measured in field. Deviation values of T _b and T _a from T _pref were calculated to investigate the extent of thermoregulation. As Isophya rizeensis is color polymorphic species where morphology pattern changes from lighter to darker types with increasing altitude we also tested whether coloration has any effect on temperature excess (T _ex ) and thermoregulation. Thermal preference values did not differ significantly between three groups and also colouration does not influence the extent of thermoregulation in this species. These results indicate that there is not sufficient evidence for the existence of a countergradient selection related with thermal behavior. However, the deviation of body (D _b ) and environmental (D _a ) temperatures suggest that at higher altitudes thermoregulation might be more efficient than lower altitudes.     

Historical biogeography and mitogenomics of two endemic Mediterranean gorgonians (Holaxonia,Plexauridae)

Among the Mediterranean plexaurids, four species are endemic and despite their ecological importance, comprehensive studies on the evolution and biogeography of these organisms are lacking. Here, we explore the mitogenomic variability of two endemic, ecologically important Mediterranean Paramuricea species. We assess their phylogenetic relationships and provide first insights into their evolution and biogeography. Complete mitogenome sequences of Paramuricea clavata and Paramuricea macrospina were obtained using long-range PCR, primer-walking and Sanger sequencing. For an enlarged sample of Paramuricea species, maximum likelihood and Bayesian phylogenetic trees of the mitochondrial gene mtMutS were obtained and used to study the biogeographic history of Paramuricea through a statistical Dispersal-Vicariance (S-DIVA) method and a Dispersal Extinction Cladogenesis (DEC) model. Divergence time was estimated under strict and relaxed molecular clock models in BEAST using published octocoral mutation rates. Our results revealed high nucleotide diversity (2.6%) among the two Mediterranean endemics; the highest mutation rates were found in the mtMutS, Nad4 and Nad5. In addition, we found length polymorphisms in several intergenic regions and differences in mitochondrial genome size. The red gorgonian P. clavata was closely related to the Eastern Atlantic Paramuricea grayi rather than its Mediterranean congener, P. macrospina. Our biogeographic results provide evidence for the independent speciation of the Mediterranean species and point to a Miocene origin of the two endemics, highlighting the role played by the Messinian Salinity Crisis in the evolutionary history of Mediterranean organisms.     

Molecular evidence for hybridization between invasive <Emphasis Type="Italic">Solidago canadensis</Emphasis> and native <Emphasis Type="Italic">S</Emphasis>. <Emphasis Type="Italic">virgaurea</Emphasis>

Hybridization between alien and native species is biologically very important and could lead to genetic erosion of native taxa. Solidago × niederederi was discovered over a century ago in Austria and described by Khek as a natural hybrid between the alien (nowadays regarded also as invasive) S. canadensis and native S. virgaurea. Although interspecific hybridization in the genus Solidago is considered to be relatively common, hybrid nature of S. × niederederi has not been independently proven using molecular tools, to date. Because proper identification of the parentage for the hybrid Solidago individuals solely based on morphological features can be misleading, in this paper we report an additive polymorphism pattern expressed in the ITS sequences obtained from individuals representing S. × niederederi, and confirm the previous hypothesis that the parental species of this hybrid are S. canadensis and S. virgaurea. Additionally, based on variability at the cpDNA rpl32-trnL locus, we showed that in natural populations hybridization occurs in both directions.     

Heterobucephalopsine and prosorhynchine trematodes (Digenea: Bucephalidae) from teleost fishes of Moreton Bay,Queensland, Australia,with the description of two new species

Eight species of the trematode family Bucephalidae Poche, 1907 are reported from teleost fishes in Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia. Heterobucephalopsis yongi n. sp. is described from Gymnothorax eurostus (Muraenidae); the new form is distinguished from its congeners in the possession of a tiny cirrus-sac relative to body length, the length of the caecum, the position of the mouth and pharynx, and the position of the testes and ovary. Two known species of Dollfustrema Eckmann, 1934, D. durum Nolan, Curran, Miller, Cutmore, Cantacessi & Cribb, 2015 and D. gibsoni Nolan & Cribb, 2010, are reported from Gymnothorax pseudothyrsoideus (Bleeker) (Muraenidae); although both species were described from Australian waters, this represents the first reports from Moreton Bay and G. pseudothyrsoideus. Four species of Prosorhynchus Odhner, 1905 are reported, including one new, P. brayi n. sp., which is described from Epinephelus coioides (Hamilton) (Serranidae); P. brayi n. sp. is distinguished from its congeners in the possession of vitelline follicles in a confluent arc distinctly posterior to a conical rhynchus, uterine coils that do not extend anterior to the vitelline arc, contiguous testes, a cirrus-sac that reaches anteriorly to at least the level of the posterior testis and a short excretory vesicle. Three known species of Prosorhynchus are reported from Australia, for the first time: P. luzonicus Velasquez, 1959 and P. maternus Bray & Justine, 2006 from E. coioides and Prosorhynchus platycephali (Yamaguti, 1934) Srivastava, 1938 from Ambiserrula jugosa (McCulloch) and Inegocia japonica (Cuvier) (Platycephalidae). Skrjabiniella Issaitschikow, 1928 is re-recognised for new specimens of Skrjabiniella uniporus (Ozaki, 1924) n. comb. collected from Conger cinereus Rüppell (Congridae); three additional species of Prosorhynchus are considered members of this genus, two of which are synonymised with S. uniporus.     

Evolutionary relationships in the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Secale</Emphasis> revealed by DArTseq DNA polymorphism

Till this day, there is not much known about the phylogeny of the Secale genus; therefore, in our research, we tried to shed some lights on the issue of rye (Secale genus) taxonomy. The genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships were evaluated using 13,842 DArTseq? polymorphic markers. The model-based clustering (STRUCTURE software) separated our 84 samples into three main clusters: perennial cluster, annual cluster, and S. sylvestre cluster. The same result was obtained using Neighbour Joining tree and self-organizing maps. Secale sylvestre, S. strictum, and S. cereale are the three main species of the Secale genus. Three samples of rye are in basal positions in phylogenetic trees. These accessions share ancient morphological characters and are probably the ancestors of different lineages within Secale. Annual Secale taxa, with the exception of S. sylvestre, create one mutual taxon. We have found out that the semi-perennial taxa of S. cereale var. multicaule and S. strictum subsp. ciliatoglume are genetically closest to the annual species of S. cereale. Phylogenetic signals for semi-perennial and annual taxa are also present in S. strictum subsp. africanum. SNP-based analysis revealed that evolution of annual S. cereale has already begun in S. strictum subsp. africanum. The results showed that S. vavilovii cannot be considered as a separate species but a subspecies of S. cereale Secale cereale subsp. dighoricum is a hybrid. It is still not clear whether we can consider S. strictum subsp. strictum and S. strictum subsp. kuprijanovii as two separate species.