ω-3 多不饱和脂肪酸对肿瘤细胞Rho GTP 酶翻译后修饰的影响

目的:观察ω-3多不饱和脂肪酸(ω-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acid,ω-3 PUFA)对人前列腺癌PC-3细胞和乳腺癌MDA-MB-231细胞Rho蛋白翻译后修饰的影响。方法:60μmol/L的二十碳五烯酸(eicosapentaenoic acid,EPA)和二十二碳六烯酸(docosahex-aenoic acid,DHA)处理PC-3和MDA-MB-231细胞24h后,检测EPA和DHA对法尼基蛋白转移酶活性的影响,对Rho蛋白的法尼基化修饰的影响,对Rho蛋白与GTP结合能力的影响。结果:EPA及DHA均能显著下调PC-3和MDA-MB-231细胞法尼基蛋白转移酶活性(P<0.01),抑制Rho蛋白(RhoA、Rac1、Rac2和Cdc42)的法尼基化修饰(P<0.01),并降低PC-3细胞Rho蛋白(RhoA、Rac1和Cdc42)与GTP的结合能力(P<0.05)。结论:ω-3 PUFA可能通过抑制肿瘤细胞Rho蛋白翻译后修饰,而影响肿瘤细胞的生物学特性。     

多态性蛋白Mad2与其配体Cdc20121-138的相互作用研究

多态性蛋白Mad2是有丝分裂纺锤体检测点(SAC)的关键蛋白,也是多态性蛋白质家族中研究最广泛的成员之一.Mad2有两种不同的天然构象:O-Mad2和C-Mad2.Mad2构象间的转变及其与配体Cdc20间的相互作用对SAC发挥其生物学功能至关重要.本文利用荧光各向异性技术对O-Mad2和C-Mad2与配体TAMRA-Cdc20~(121-138)间相互作用的热力学及动力学过程进行了系统表征.结果表明:在无盐和低盐溶液(100 mmol/L NaCl)中,Mad2两种构象与Cdc20~(121-138)的平衡解离常数(K_D)均在10~(-6) mol/L,但C-Mad2与Cdc20~(121-138)结合的K_D值约为O-Mad2的1/5;在高盐(300 mmol/L NaCl)溶液中,Mad2两种构象与TAMRA-Cdc20~(121-138)结合的K_D值无明显差别.动力学实验结果显示,在同一种缓冲液中Mad2两种构象与Cdc20~(121-138)相互作用的解离速率常数k_d没有显著差别,而C-Mad2与Cdc20~(121-138)的结合速率常数k_a却比O-Mad2高一个数量级,这表明C-Mad2与Cdc20~(121-138)不仅结合力更强,且结合速率要快很多.Mad2与Cdc20~(121-138)突变体间的相互作用以及离子强度对二者相互作用的影响结果提示,Mad2和Cdc20间的相互作用不是通过静电相互作用,而可能是通过疏水相互作用来实现的.本研究为揭示多态性蛋白Mad2的构象转变机理及其在有丝分裂过程中的作用机制提供了重要的实验基础.     

高温胁迫对花生幼苗光合速率、叶绿素含量、叶绿体Ca2+-ATPase、Mg2+-ATPase及Ca2+分布的影响

将水培后盆栽的花生幼苗,置于培养箱42℃高温培养,定时测定幼苗叶光合速率、叶绿素含量和叶绿体Ca^2＋-ATPase、Mg^2＋-ATPase的相对活性,并观察幼叶细胞内Ca^2＋分布的变化。试验结果表明：高温胁迫过程中,光合速率及叶绿素含量都随处理时间的延伸而下降,并呈显著正相关;叶绿体Ca^2＋-ATPase和Mg^2＋-ATPase高温胁迫过程中相对活性呈先升后降趋势,Ca^2＋-ATPase热敏性高于Mg^2＋-ATPase;高温胁迫过程中,Ca^2＋具有从胞外转运到胞质内和叶绿体中的趋势,Ca^2＋能够稳定高温胁迫下叶肉细胞膜和叶绿体的超微结构。     

监测活细胞中诱导激活的Rac、Cdc42信号转导通路的FRET单分子探针

Rho家族鸟苷三磷酸酶,包括Rac1和Cdc42等．参与调节细胞形态、细胞迁移、转录激活和基因表达等一系列细胞过程。根据FRET（Fluorescent resonance energy transfer）技术原理,构建了包含红色荧光蛋白dsRed1与青色荧光蛋白ECFP的全长cDNA．效应分子Pak1或N—WASP的GTP酶联结区域．信号分子Rac1或Cdc42的全长cDNA的几种单分子探针。转染NIH3T3或Hela细胞,以胰岛素、缓激肽为诱导剂,分别激活Rac1、Cdc42信号转导通路。离体荧光光谱检测表明．在两种转染动物细胞中均产生了FRET现象。不同信号转导通路的FRET效率,在诱导激活5min后,均达到最高值,但增加幅度有显著差异。随着诱导时间的延长,FRET效率下降,但下降速率在不同信号转导通路间差异显著。Rac1、Cdc42激活试验证实．诱导激活的转染细胞中,Rac1、Cdc42均处于激活状态（GTP—bound）,其在不同诱导时间的相对激活程度与FRET效率表现相同。诱导激活的Rac1、Cdc42信号转导通路,分别导致了转染活细胞中片状伪足、线状伪足的产生。这表明,采用这些单分子探针,可直接监测激活的信号转导通路,在活细胞中的3D时空分布变化图像及其产生的细胞学效应。采用这些单分子探针．分析、判断了一些调节蛋白对Rac1、Cdc42的GEF或GAP特性。从而提供一种可大大简化现有的鉴定待测蛋白分子的方法。     

大肠杆菌中高表达重组Era可溶性蛋白的纯化及其生化特性

质粒pCE31含有在P_L起动子控制下的重组era基因,在大肠杆菌中、42℃诱导高表达出Era蛋白,经溶菌酶处理裂菌、沉淀离心洗涤后所得的纯Era是不溶的,生物活性也不高。改在40℃诱导2h,在Era底物GDP的存在下裂菌,60％以上的Era处于可溶状态。用蛋白酶抑制剂防止Era蛋白降解,经盐析、Q-SepharoseFF柱层析分离,获得可溶性纯Era蛋白。该蛋白能特异地与鸟苷酸结合、并具有GTP酶活性,表明Era是一种G蛋白。动力学定量分析结果:在4℃时,每分子Era肽链能结合一分子GTP或GDP,表明所纯化的Era蛋白几乎都具有活性;4℃下,Era蛋白与GTP或GDP结合的解离常数,分别为5.49和1.01μmol/L;37℃时,Era蛋白GTP酶的Km值为9.0μmol/L,催化GTP水解的最大速度为9.8mmolCTP/mol Era/min。     

桦木酸体内抗肿瘤作用的初步研究

目的研究桦木酸对H22、S180小鼠肿瘤细胞药效学作用及对肿瘤细胞膜Ca^2＋、Mg^2＋-ATP酶活性的影响。方法通过限量实验确定桦木酸的给药剂量。动物随机分为6组,分别为桦木酸500、250、125mg／kg剂量组,阳性对照组给予环磷酰胺（20mg／kg）,模型对照组分别给予相同体积的生理盐水和配药溶剂,灌胃给药。观察生命延长时间与瘤重抑制率;紫外分光光度法测定Ca^2＋、Mg^2＋-ATP酶活性,结果桦木酸使S180荷瘤小鼠肿瘤细胞膜Ca^2＋、Mg^2＋-ATP酶活性提高（P〈0．05）。结论桦木酸抗肿瘤作用机制与其上调肿瘤细胞膜p53蛋白的表达,改变肿瘤细胞膜Ca^2＋、Mg^2＋-ATP酶活性有关。     

水稻osRACB基因的原核表达及其蛋白质产物的生化特性鉴定

Rac蛋白作为高等植物中已知的惟一一类分布广泛的信号GTP结合蛋白 ,在植物体众多生命活动调节中起着分子开关的作用。实验将水稻Rac家族新成员osRACB基因克隆于原核表达载体pET 2 8a中 ,转化大肠杆菌BL2 1(DE3)宿主菌 ,经IPTG诱导实现了目标融合蛋白质的高效表达。通过Ni2 NTA柱纯化 ,获得纯化的目标融合蛋白质 ,经凝血酶作用后得到osRACB非融合蛋白质。该蛋白质经谷胱甘肽氧化还原体系复性和超滤浓缩后 ,用于体外功能鉴定。结果显示 ,osRACB蛋白具有与GTP特异性结合的活性以及水解GTP的功能。与另一Rac蛋白osRACD相比较 ,osRACB具有更强的GTP结合活性和较弱的GTP水解活性。     

烟草根皮层原生质体质膜钾通道的特性研究

采用膜片钳技术对烟草根皮层原生质体质膜上的钾通道进行全细胞记录,从而深入研究烟草K^＋的吸收机制和调控机理。结果表明,内向钾通道在膜电压低于-40mV时,可以被K^＋激活。内向电流可以被钾通道的专一抑制剂TEA^＋抑制。动力学分析表明内向钾电流产生的K^＋表观解离常数（Km）≈15．2mmol／L,类似于低亲和性钾通道。该通道具有依赖于胞外K^＋浓度的特性,对胞外NH4^＋、Ca^2＋、Mg^2＋浓度变化反应敏感,内向K^＋电流可被不同程度地抑制。     

Ca2+对骨骼肌钙释放通道的调节

钙释放通道（calcium release channel）又称Ryanodine受体（RyR）,是细胞内质网膜上介导细胞内钙信号转导的离子通道。RyR1在骨骼肌细胞的兴奋-收缩偶联过程中起重要作用,是肌质网快速释放Ca^2＋的通道。许多调节因素,如一些内源性蛋白（FK结合蛋白、钙调素、钙结合蛋白）和一些离子（Ca^2＋、Mg^2＋）,通过不同的作用位点与RyR1结合,调控RyR1的结构与功能。研究表明,Ca^2＋是众多调节RyR1因素中的核心成分和前提条件,其对RyR1的结构与功能有重要的调控作用。     

Mg^2+介导底物亲和力的改变增加黍子过氧化物酶的磷酸酶活性

黍子过氧化物酶(proso millet peroxidase,PmPOD)具有磷酸酶活性,可以断裂DNA中磷酸二酯键及脱氧核糖核苷酸(dNMPs)中磷酸单酯键。在此反应过程中,Mg^2+显著增强PmPOD的磷酸酶活性,但其具体的机制尚不明确。本文采用紫外-可见分光光谱法和荧光光谱法,研究了以dNMPs为底物时,Mg^2+对PmPOD磷酸酶活性的影响,并对其反应机制进行了初步的探究。紫外-可见分光光度法结果表明:Mg^2+介导了PmPOD与底物的相互作用,但Mg^2+并未直接与PmPOD发生相互作用。荧光光谱进一步表明,在Mg^2+存在的情况下,dNMPs对PmPOD内源荧光淬灭方式发生变化,由动态淬灭转变为静态淬灭。同时还发现,dNMPs与PmPOD的结合常数Ka增加约2~10倍(与不存在Mg^2+条件相比),依次为:KadCMP>KadGMP>KadTMP>KadAMP。高效液相色谱表明,Mg^2+可增强PmPOD水解dNMPs的速率3~13倍,且水解速率VdCMP>VdGMP>VdTMP>VdAMP,与结合常数的变化一致。因此,我们得出结论,PmPOD发挥磷酸酶活性时,Mg^2+首先与dNMPs形成中间产物,这一中间产物更适合与PmPOD形成复合物,增大了底物dNMPs与PmPOD结合常数,进而加速了PmPOD水解dNMPs。本研究为Mg^2+在过氧化物酶催化DNA水解的机制提供了相关依据,为研究金属离子增强蛋白酶活性的机制提供了理论基础。     

Kinetics of dissociation of parvalbumin complexes with calcium and magnesium ions

Dissociation kinetics of parvalbumin complexes with calcium and magnesium ions were studied by means of stopped-flow method employing intrinsic protein fluorescence registration. In the temperature range from 10 to 30 degrees C the kinetic curves of Ca2+ and Mg2+ dissociation are best fitted with a sum of two exponential terms, each term is ascribed to a dissociation process in one of two bindings sites of parvalbumin. Dissociation rate constants in this temperature range increase from 0.03 to 0.8 s-1 and from 0.18 to 5 s-1 for Ca2+, and from 0.9 to 4.5 s-1 and from 4 to 33 s-1 for Mg2+. Parvalbumin equilibrium binding constants of Ca2+ and Mg2+ were also measured in the same temperature range. It makes possible to estimate the rate constants of association of Ca2+ and Mg2+. In the case of Ca2+ the rate of association approaches the diffusion controlled limit.     

Probing the binding states of GDP to Cdc42 using urea interaction

The inactive state of the small G protein Cdc42, the Cdc42.GDP.Mg(2+) ternary complex, was investigated using fluorescence, Mn(2+) substituted electron paramagnetic resonance, and (31)P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy at various urea concentrations. The urea interaction with the protein was used to probe the binding state of GDP.Mg(2+) to Cdc42. Two binding states of the Cdc42.GDP.Mg(2+) ternary complex with different binding stability were observed. The two binding states were characterized by two sets of (31)P resonance of GDP phosphate groups, namely P(alpha) and P(beta), P('alpha), and P('beta). The high populated binding state I (P(alpha) and P(beta)) was more stable and less sensitive to the urea interaction. Yet the population of binding state II (P('alpha) and P('beta)) was lower, and the binding of GDP.Mg(2+) to Cdc42 in this state was more sensitive to the urea interaction. The release of GDP.Mg(2+) from the ternary complex in binding state II was faster than in state I.     

Effect of Mg ions and spermine on ATP-dependent Ca2+ transport in myometrial intracellular structures. I. Comparative study of Ca2+ accumulation in mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum

In experiments, which were carried out with the use of a radioactive label (45Ca2+) on the suspension of rat uterus myocytes treated by digitonin solution (0.1 mg/ml), influence of Mg ions and spermine on Mg2+, ATP-dependent Ca2+ transport in mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum was investigated. Ca2+ accumulation in mitochondria (1324 +/- 174 pmol Ca2+/10(6) cells for 1 min - the control) was tested as such which was not sensitive to thapsigargin (100 nM) and was blocked by ruthenium red (10 microM). Oxalate-stimulated Ca2+ accumulation in sarcoplasmic reticulum (136 +/- 17 pmol Ca2+/10(6) cells for 1 min - the control) was tested as such which was not sensitive to ruthenium red and was blocked by thapsigargin. It has been shown, that initial speed and level of energy-dependent Ca2+ accumulation in mitochondria considerably exceeded the values of these parameters for sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-accumulation system. Ca2+ accumulation kinetic in mitochondria was characterized by a steady-state phase (for 5-10 min. of incubation) while accumulation kinetic of this cation in sarcoplasmic reticulum corresponded to zero order reaction. Increase of Mg2+ concentration up to 5 mM led to activation of Ca2+-accumulation systems in mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum (values of activation constants K(Mg) for Mg2+ were 2.8 and 0.6 mM, accordingly). Concentration dependence of spermine action on Ca2+ accumulation in mitochondria was described by a dome-shaped curve with a maximum at 1 mM spermine. In case of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump only the inhibition phase was tested at spermine concentration above 1 mM. However values of inhibition constants for both transporting systems were practically identical--5.2 +/- 0.6 and 5.7 +/- 0.7 mM, accordingly. Hence, Mg ions carry out the important role in regulation of energy-dependent Ca2+ transporting systems both in uterus smooth muscle mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum. Spermine acts first of all on mitochondrial calcium uniporter.     

Mathematical model of trans-sarcomere exchange of calcium ions and Ca2+-dependent control of smooth muscle contractile activity

The mathematical model of smooth muscles contractile activity Ca(2+)-dependent control has been proposed on the base of Ca ions trans-sarcomal exchange biochemical mechanisms interpretation in myocytes. While analysing the model the conclusion should be made that kinetic parameters changes (in relation to Ca ions) Mg2+, ATP-dependent calcium pump of plasma membrane--Michaelis constant Km and transport process maximal velocity Vmax-render the effect on the character of the intracellular calcium transients and profile of full mechanokinetic curve. As well one more conclusion has been made that plasma membrane Mg2+, ATP-dependent calcium pump, which kinetic parameters under the physiologic conditions are subjected to modulation as the result of metabolic, pharmacologic and physico-chemical factors fulfills the essential role in supplying Ca(2+)-dependent control of the smooth muscles contractile response full cycle.     

The role of Asp42 in Escherichia coli inorganic pyrophosphatase functioning.

Excess of Mg2+ ions is known to inhibit the soluble inorganic pyrophosphatases (PPases). In contrast, the mutant Escherichia coli inorganic pyrophosphatase Asp42-->Asn is three times more active than native and retains its activity at high Mg2+ concentration. In this paper, another two mutant variants with Asp42 replaced by Ala or Glu were investigated to characterize the role of Asp42 in catalysis. pH-independent kinetic parameters of MgPPi hydrolysis and the dissociation constants for the activating and inhibitory Mg2+ ions were calculated. It was shown that Mg2+ inhibition of MgPPi hydrolysis by native PPase exhibited uncompetitive kinetics under the saturating substrate concentration. All three substitutions of Asp42 lead to a sharp decrease of inhibitory Mg2+ affinity to the enzyme. These findings allow determination of the sites of inhibitory and substrate Mg2+ ions binding to PPase. Common features of these mutants allow the conclusion that the function of Asp42 is to accurately coordinate the residues implicated in the substrate and the inhibitory Mg2+ ion binding to PPase active site. Structural analysis of PPase complexed with Mg2+ compared with PPase complexed with Mn2+ and reaction products confirms this supposition.     

Concerted motion of a protein-peptide complex: backbone dynamics studies of an (15)N-labeled peptide derived from P(21)-activated kinase bound to Cdc42Hs.GMPPCP.

Cdc42Hs is a member of the Ras superfamily of GTPases which, when active, initiates a cascade beginning with the activation of several kinases, including P(21)-activated kinase (PAK). We previously determined the structure of a complex between a 46 amino acid fragment peptide derived from the PAK binding domain (PBD46) and Cdc42Hs.GMPPCP (Gizachew, D., Guo, W., Chohan, K. K., Sutcliffe, M. J., and Oswald, R. E. (2000) Biochemistry 39, 3963-3971). Previous studies (Loh, A. P., Guo, W., Nicholson, L. K., and Oswald, R. E. (1999) Biochemistry 38, 12547-12557) suggest that the regions of Cdc42Hs that bind effectors and regulators have distinct dynamic properties from the remainder of the protein. Here, we describe the backbone dynamics of PBD46 bound to Cdc42Hs.GMPPCP. T(1), T(2), T(1)(rho), and steady-state nuclear Overhauser effects were measured at 500 and 600 MHz. An extension of the Lipari-Szabo model-free analysis was used to determine the order parameters (S(2)) and local correlation times (tau(e)) of the N-H bond vectors within PBD46. Both Cdc42Hs and PBD46 exhibit increased mobility in the free versus the bound state, suggesting that protein flexibility may be required for high-affinity PBD46 binding and, presumably, the activation of PAK. Different backbone dynamics were observed in different regions of the peptide. The beta-strand region of bound PBD46, which makes contacts with beta2 of Cdc42Hs, exhibits low mobility on the pico- to nanosecond timescale. However, the part of PBD46 that interacts with Switch I of Cdc42Hs exhibits greater mobility. Thus, PBD46 and Cdc42Hs form a tight complex that exhibits concerted dynamics.     

Role of calcium as an inhibitor of rat liver carbamylphosphate synthetase I

The mechanism of Ca2+ inhibition of carbamylphosphate synthetase I has been investigated using purified enzyme obtained from livers of rats fed a high protein diet. Binding of Mn2+ to the enzyme was measured by EPR techniques at pH 7.8, and Scatchard plots of the data indicated one Mn2+-binding site with a K'd of 13 microM. From competition studies between Mn2+ and Ca2+ or Mg2+ binding, values of 180 microM were obtained for K'd (Mg) and 193 microM for K'd (Ca). A nonlinear least squares curve fitting program was used to calculate the K'm for MgATP2- at the metal-nucleotide binding sites using a simplified rate equation of the enzyme reaction mechanism. Values of 140 and 2420 microM were obtained for K'm (MgATP) at the first and second sites, respectively, at pH 7.8, with a free Mg2+ of 1 mM and other substrates and activators present at saturating concentrations. Variations of the bicarbonate, N-acetylglutamate, and ammonia concentrations in the absence and presence of different amounts of total calcium, from which free Ca2+, free Mg2+, MgATP2-, and CaATP2- concentrations were calculated, permitted values for K'i (CaATP) to be obtained by graphic procedures. Mean values of 375 and 120 microM were obtained for K'i (CaATP) at the first and second sites, respectively. Using the above kinetic constants, a computer model of the enzyme reaction was constructed and tested using two further sets of kinetic data obtained by varying the concentrations of Mg2+, Ca2+, MgATP2-, and CaATP2-. Poor fits were obtained unless the formation of a mixed complex involving CaATP2- competition with MgATP2- at the second metal-nucleotide-binding site was incorporated into the rate equation. Nonlinear least squares curve fitting of both sets of experimental data gave a well determined value of 124 microM for this final CaATP2- inhibitory constant. Sensitivity tests for variation of the primary kinetic constants with the computer model showed that the inhibitory effect of free Ca2+ was weak and that the observed calcium inhibition of carbamylphosphate synthetase can be accounted for primarily by competitive interaction of CaATP2- at the second MgATP2- binding site. With 1 mM free Mg2+ and 5 mM MgATP2-, half-maximal inhibition of enzyme activity was obtained with 0.2 mM CaATP2-.     

Comparison of Different Cations (Mn2+, Mg2+, Ca2+) on the Hydrolytic Activity of Chloroplast ATPase

The influences of Mn2+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ on the enzymic activity of chloroplast ATPase have been compared, using an HPLC method for the separation of ADP. The dissociation constants of the divalent ion-ATP complexes have been determined by a spectrophotometric method, with the dye antipyrylazo III, and enzymic constants (dissociation constant of the ion-enzyme complexes, Michaelis constants, maximum rates) have been calculated. The comparison between the rates obtained, respectively, with Mn2+ and Ca2+ alone with that given by the mixture of these two ions, allows us to conclude that, as for Mg2+, Mn2+ is also an activator of chloroplast ATPase and that metal-free ATP is the true substrate.     

N-cadherin-dependent cell-cell contact regulates Rho GTPases and beta-catenin localization in mouse C2C12 myoblasts

N-cadherin, a member of the Ca(2+)-dependent cell-cell adhesion molecule family, plays an essential role in skeletal muscle cell differentiation. We show that inhibition of N-cadherin-dependent adhesion impairs the upregulation of the two cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p21 and p27, the expression of the muscle-specific genes myogenin and troponin T, and C2C12 myoblast fusion. To determine the nature of N-cadherin-mediated signals involved in myogenesis, we investigated whether N-cadherin-dependent adhesion regulates the activity of Rac1, Cdc42Hs, and RhoA. N-cadherin-dependent adhesion decreases Rac1 and Cdc42Hs activity, and as a consequence, c-jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPK activity but not that of the p38 MAPK pathway. On the other hand, N-cadherin-mediated adhesion increases RhoA activity and activates three skeletal muscle-specific promoters. Furthermore, RhoA activity is required for beta-catenin accumulation at cell-cell contact sites. We propose that cell-cell contacts formed via N-cadherin trigger signaling events that promote the commitment to myogenesis through the positive regulation of RhoA and negative regulation of Rac1, Cdc42Hs, and JNK activities.     

Competitive ion binding to low density lipoproteins: an electron spin resonance study

The electron spin resonance (ESR) technique was used to evaluate binding constants for Ca(II) and Mg(II) in interaction with low density lipoprotein (LDL). The Ca(II) or Mg(II) ions competed with the paramagnetic Mn(II) ions for the same binding sites of two different classes on the LDL surface. For each ion competing with Mn(II), the solutions of eight non-linear competition equations were fit to the experimental titration curves, with two adjustable parameters, the two binding constants. The derived "intrinsic" values (the values corrected for the electrolyte-induced change of the surface potential) for "strong" binding sites for Ca(II) (170 +/- 85 M-1) and Mg(II) (60 +/- 30 M-1) differ significantly from the respective value for Mn(II) (760 M-1). The values for the "weak" binding sites (18 M-1, 15 M-1 and 10 M-1 for Mn(II), Ca(II) and Mg(II), respectively are in the range of the binding constants for these ions in interaction with model membranes.