Surnames in Texas: a population study through isonymy

To study the isonymy structure of Texas, we analyzed the surname distributions of 3.6 million telephone users registered for the year 1996 in 232 towns distributed in the 7 regions of the state. The number of different surnames was 235,740. Matrices of isonymy distances between towns and between geographic regions were constructed and tested for correlation with geographic distance. We found that isonymy distances between the seven regions showed borderline or no correlation with geographic distance, with r = 0.089 +/- 0.232, r = 0.492 +/- 0.232, and r = 0.337 +/- 0.232 for Lasker's, Euclidean, and Nei's distances, respectively. Isonymy distances between towns were significantly correlated with geographic distance, with r = 0.249 +/- 0.006 for Lasker's distance, r = 0.338 +/- 0.006 for the Euclidean distance, and r = 0.418 +/- 0.006 for Nei's distance. Two dendrograms, one for the 7 regions and one for the 232 towns, were built from the matrices of Nei's distances. The dendrogram for regions indicates that a main surname differentiation exists between the East and West areas of Texas, with West Texas being predominantly Hispanic and East Texas being predominantly English-speaking. The dendrogram for the towns confirms in detail the differences identified by the matrix of distances between regions. Random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), was highest in the west and in the south of the state. It was lowest in the area of Austin and Houston. Average Fisher's alpha for towns was 734, for regions it was 1,047, and for Texas as a whole it was 1,230. The geographic distribution of alpha in the state shows distinctly lower values in the traditionally Hispanic west and higher values in the east and on the Gulf of Mexico.     

Surnames in Western Europe: a comparison of the subcontinental populations through isonymy

We studied the isonymic structure of Western Europe using the distributions of 26.2 million surnames in 8 countries, 125 regions and 2094 towns of the Subcontinent. We found that, for the whole of Western Europe, Nei's distance was correlated with geographic distance (r=0.610+/-0.009). It was observed that at long geographic distances the isonymyc distance stays below linearity and tends to become asymptotic, and this was attributed to long distance migration. A dendrogram of the125 regions was built and the clusters identified by the dendrogram are almost exactly coincident with the nations of the Subcontinent. Random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), was highest in Spanish regions, and lowest in France. The geographical distribution of alpha in 2094 towns, high in the Center and East of the Subcontinent and lower in Spain, is compatible with the settlement of subsequent waves of migrants moving from the West and from the South toward the centre of the Continent. The present surname structure of Western Europe is strictly linked to local languages.     

Isonymy and isolation by distance in Italy

The isonymy structure of Italy was studied using the surname distribution of 5,043,580 private telephone users selected from a 1996 commercial CD-ROM that contains all 24 million users in the country. The users were distributed in 123 towns selected on a geographic basis. The 123 towns were either on the main communication roads of the country or at the ends of such roads. The shortest distance between nearest neighbor towns was 5.3 km (Carrara and Massa), and the largest distance was 1,136 km (Aosta and Castrignano del Capo). The number of different surnames found in the whole analysis was 215,623. Lasker's distance, the negative value of the logarithm of random isonymy between localities, was linearly and significantly correlated with the logarithm of geographic distance, with r = 0.63 +/- 0.008. A dendrogram was built from the matrix of isonymy distances, using UPGMA. It separates the Italian towns into 5 main clusters: 1 in the southern portion of the country, a second cluster toward the center, and 3 in the northern area of Italy. Within each cluster small subclusters with specific geographic distributions could be related to regional borders. Comparisons with the results of a previous analysis of Switzerland and Germany's structures are given. From the present analysis isolation by distance emerges clearly, although it is less strong than in Switzerland and stronger than in Germany. The random component of inbreeding estimated from isonymy indicates that the southern area of Italy is on average more inbred than the northern area. In fact, the heterogeneity is greater in the northern area, particularly in the plain of the Po River, than anywhere else in Italy.     

Isonymy and isolation by distance in the Netherlands

The isonymy structure of the Netherlands was studied using the surname distribution of 2.4 million private telephone users selected from a 1996 commercial CD-ROM containing the names of 6.3 million users in the country. The users were distributed in 226 towns selected on a geographic basis to form an approximately regular grid throughout the Netherlands. Names of telephone users in each town were downloaded from the CD-ROM, with private users being selected for inclusion in the analysis. The shortest linear distance between several nearest neighboring towns was less than 2 km (e.g., Kampen and Ijsselmuiden, Krommen and Zaandijk, Hendrikdo and Papendrecht) and the longest distance was 326 km (Delfzijl and Oostburg ZL). The number of different surnames revealed by the analysis was 126,485. Lasker's distance, the negative value of the logarithm of isonymy between localities, was found to be significantly correlated with linear geographic distance, with r = 0.47 +/- 0.006. A dendrogram built using the matrix of isonymy distances, using the nearest neighbor-joining method, separates the Dutch towns into several clusters, most of them correlated with traditional Dutch regions. Comparisons with the results of previous analyses of the structure of other European countries are given. From the present analysis, isolation by distance emerges clearly, and it is relevant, although much weaker than in Switzerland, Austria, Italy, and Germany. The random component of inbreeding estimated from isonymy indicates a considerable degree of homogeneity in the Netherlands.     

Surnames in Argentina: a population study through isonymy

In order to study the isonymic structure of Argentina, the surname distributions of 22.6 million electors registered for the year 2001 were analyzed in the 24 districts (distritos) and 541 municipalities (municipios) of the country. The number of different surnames found was 414,441. Matrices of isonymic distances between districts were constructed and tested for correlation with the geographic distance between the capital towns of the districts. We found that, for the whole of Argentina, Euclidean distance was correlated with the log of geographic distance (r=0.480+/- 0.067). A dendrogram of the 24 regions was built from the matrix of Euclidean distances, using the UPGMA method. The clusters identified by the dendrogram are coincident with conterminous geographical regions of the country. Random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), was highest in La Rioja, Corrientes, and Santiago del Estero. It was lowest in the area of Buenos Aires and in the north-central region of Santa Fé. Average Fisher's alpha for municipalities was 358; for districts, it was 422; and for Argentina as a unit, it was 602. The geographical distribution of alpha in 541 municipalities, high in the east and lower in the west of the country, is compatible with the settlement in the 20th century of subsequent waves of immigrants moving from the North Atlantic coast toward the foot of the Andes and toward the south. The present structure of Argentina indicates that migration dominates over drift.     

Isonymy structure of USA population

The isonymy structure of the 48 states of the continental United States of America was studied using the surname distributions of 18 million telephone users, distributed in 247 towns. The shortest linear distance between nearest neighbor towns included in the sample was 12.0 km. The largest distance was 4,577 km. The number of different surnames found in the whole analysis was 899,585. Lasker's distance was found to be significantly but weakly correlated with the geographic distance, with r = 0.21 +/- 0.01. A dendrogram of the 48 states was built from the matrix of isonymy distances: it divides the US into several clusters, in general correlated with geography. A notable exception is California and New Jersey, which cluster together. Wisconsin is separated from all other states. An important cluster is formed by Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, and Arizona, together with Illinois and Florida. It was observed that Hispanic surnames are among the most frequent in Illinois, as they are in New Jersey and California. No main distinction among the states clearly attributable to surnames of French origin was detected; however, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Maine which have a considerable number of these surnames belong to the same northeastern cluster. From the present analysis, the great mobility of the US population emerges clearly, and it seems relevant that the practical absence of isolation by distance is seen also considering only small towns. It appears that groups of different origin are well-mixed over the whole area of the United States. The values of isonymy indicate that the south-central area of the USA has the highest level of inbreeding. In fact, the heterogeneity in surname composition is greater in the coastal areas, particularly on the East Coast, than anywhere else in the USA.     

Surnames in Siberia: a study of the population of Yakutia through isonymy

We studied the isonymic structure of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), in the Russian Federation, using the surname distributions of 491,259 citizens above 18 years registered as residents in 2002. These were distributed in 35 districts and 497 towns and settlements of the Republic. The number of different surnames was 44,625. Matrices of isonymic distances between the 35 districts were tested for correlation with the geographic distance between the population centers of gravity of the districts. We found that, for the whole of Yakutia, Nei's distance was correlated with geographic distance (r = 0.693 +/- 0.027). A dendrogram of the 35 districts was built from the distance matrix, using the UPGMA method. The clusters identified by the dendrogram correlate with the geographic position of the districts. The correlation of random inbreeding calculated from isonymy, F(ST), with latitude was positive and highly significant but weak (r = 0.23). So, inbreeding was highest in the Arctic districts, and lowest in the South. Average alpha for 497 towns was 107, for 35 districts it was 311, and for the Republic 433. The value of alpha was higher for Russian than for the local languages. The geographical distribution of alpha, high in the Center and South-East and lower in the North-West, is compatible with the settlement of groups of migrants moving from the South-East toward the center and the North of Yakutia. It is proposed that low-density demic diffusion of human populations results in high inbreeding and may have been a general phenomenon in the early phases of human radiations.     

Surnames in Chile: a study of the population of Chile through isonymy

In Chile, the Hispanic dual surname system is used. To describe the isonymic structure of this country, the distribution of 16,277,255 surnames of 8,178,209 persons was studied in the 15 regions, the 54 provinces, and the 346 communes of the nation. The number of different surnames found was 72,667. Effective surname number (Fisher's α) for the entire country was 309.0, the average for regions was 240.8 ± 17.6, for provinces 209.2 ± 8.9, and for communes 178.7 ± 4.7. These values display a variation of inbreeding between administrative levels in the Chilean population, which can be attributed to the 'Prefecture effect' of Nei and Imaizumi. Matrices of isonymic distances between units within administrative levels were tested for correlation with geographic distance. The correlations were highest for provinces (r = 0.630 ± 0.019 for Euclidean distance) and lowest for communes (r = 0.366 ± 0.009 for Lasker's). The geographical distribution of the first three-dimensions of the Euclidean distance matrix suggests that population diffusion may have taken place from the north of the country toward the center and south. The prevalence of European plus European-Amerindian (95.4%) over Amerindian ethnicity (4.6%, CIA World Factbook) is compatible with diffusion of Caucasian groups over a low-density area populated by indigenous groups. The significant excess of maternal over paternal indigenous surnames indicates some asymmetric mating between nonAmerindian and Amerindian Chileans. The available studies of Y-markers and mt-markers are in agreement with this asymmetry. In the present work, we investigate the Chilean population with the aim of detecting its structure through the study of isonymy (Crow and Mange,1965) in the three administrative levels of the nation, namely 15 regions, 54 provinces, and 346 communes.     

Genetic structure of the Utah Mormons: isonymy analysis

Isonymy analysis is reported for a sample of 188,895 marriages extracted from the Utah Genealogical Database. Inbreeding rates estimated by isonymy are low, ranging from 0.005 for the earliest marriage cohort (1800-1809) to 0.0008 in the most recent cohort (1950-1959). The inbreeding values decrease considerably through time, but they are consistently higher than inbreeding values estimated from pedigrees. Several explanations are offered for this, including polyphyletism of surnames and the presence of Scandinavian patronyms in this population. Random isonymy between subdivisions is also compared with random kinship estimated from migration matrices. In terms of within-subdivision kinship, the two approaches yield similar results. However, the results are quite dissimilar for between-subdivision kinship. This reflects the recent and nonrandom settlement of Utah by different ethnic groups with different surname distributions. In later time periods, the correlations between the two types of kinship estimates increase, showing that migration patterns (which are strongly determined by geographic distance) exert an increasing influence on the distribution of surnames. Logistic regression is performed on a subset of marriages (n = 88,202), using isonymous vs. nonisonymous marriage as the dependent variable. The independent variables are year of marriage, geographic distance between husband's and wife's birthplaces, endogamous vs. exogamous marriage, and population sizes of husband's and wife's birthplaces. Year of marriage and geographic distance are shown to be significant independent predictors of isonymous marriage.     

Surnames in the Azores: analysis of the isonymy structure

Geographic isolation is a significant factor to consider when characterizing human populations. The knowledge of the genetic structure of isolated populations has been of great importance to disease-locus positioning and gene identification. To investigate the genetic structure of the Azorean population, we conducted a survey based on the frequencies of surnames listed in the 2001 telephone book. We calculated the following parameters: isonymy (I), the random component of inbreeding (F(ST)), genetic diversity according to Fisher (alpha), Karlin-McGregor's migration rate (v), and Nei's distance. For the 1,271 subscribers and 163 different surnames, Graciosa island presented the lowest value of abundance of surnames (alpha = 15.75), suggesting great genetic isolation compared to the other eight islands. Migration, calculated on the basis of the diversity of surnames within islands, ranged from 0.2747 (Corvo island) to 0.0026 (S?o Miguel island), indicating that people migrated preferentially toward the economically more developed islands. The value of the random component of inbreeding obtained for the whole population (F(ST) = 0.0039) indicates little genetic differentiation (Wright's F(ST) < 0.05). Moreover, isonymy similarity revealed using the UPGMA method shows three subclusters corresponding to the geographic distribution of the islands.     

Factors related to inbreeding components from isonymy in an urban population: Aranjuez (Spain)

An isonymic analysis has been carried out using a sample of 1529 reconstituted families residing during 1870-1964 in Aranjuez, an urban area situated south of Madrid, Spain. The random, non-random and total-components inbreeding coefficients from isonymy were obtained and the various combinations of surnames compared in order to infer the patri- or matrilocal pattern of residence. Throughout the period studied the random component of inbreeding (F(r)) has not changed, in contrast to the non-random component (F(n)), thus suggesting the latter could be responsible for the reduction of total inbreeding. Using several methodological approaches (biplot analysis, alpha, nu and percentage of immigrants) the predominance of the immigration of grooms was interpreted in terms of Aranjuez as a matrilocal pattern of residence. From this study it can also be concluded that surnames provided by reconstituted families are good estimators of inbreeding and migration.     

Population structure of rural settlements of Sakha Republic (Yakutia): surname structure

The distributions of surnames have been studied in 12 rural ethnic territorial groups of Sakha Republic (Yakutia). The populations studied are characterized by considerable accumulation of individual surnames, the surname spectra of representative of different ethnic groups living in the same area substantially overlapping. The random isonymy, migration index, surname diversity, and the surname distribution redundancy index display geographic and ethnic differences. The isonymy relationship coefficients calculated for representatives of individual ethnic groups (Yakuts, Evens, and Russians) and for total populations of the settlements studied are determined by the geographic distances between the compared populations and the intensity of migrations.     

Inbreeding avoidance in an isolated indigenous Zapotec community in the valley of Oaxaca, southern Mexico

We analyzed inbreeding using surname isonymy in an indigenous genetic isolate. The subjects were residents of a rural Zapotec-speaking community in the valley of Oaxaca, southern Mexico. The community can be classified as a genetic isolate with an average gene flow of < or = 3% per generation. Surnames were collected for individuals in each household in pedigree form using the culturally traditional patronym-matronym naming. Estimation of inbreeding from surname isonymy is facilitated by the traditional patronym-matronym name assignment among indigenous Mexican populations. A total of 2,149 individuals had valid surname patronym-matronym pairings, including 484 deceased ancestors. Surname isonymy analysis methods were used to estimate total inbreeding and to segregate it into random and nonrandom components. The surname isonymy coefficient computed from 119 isonymous surname pairings (119/2,149) was 0.0554. The estimated inbreeding coefficient from surname isonymy was 0.0138 (0.0554/4). The random and nonrandom components of inbreeding were F(r) = 0.0221 and F(n) = -0.0091, respectively. The results suggest that consanguinity is culturally avoided. Nonrandom inbreeding decreased total inbreeding by about 41%. Total estimated inbreeding by surname isonymy was 0.0138, which is similar to inbreeding estimated from a sample of pedigrees, 0.01. Socially prescribed inbreeding avoidance substantially lowered total F through negative nonrandom inbreeding. Even in the situation of genetic isolation and small effective population size (N(e)), estimated inbreeding is lower than may have otherwise occurred if inbreeding were only random. However, among the poorest individuals, socially prescribed jural rules for inbreeding avoidance failed to operate. Thus the preponderance of inbreeding appears to occur among the poor, economically disadvantaged in the community.     

Surnames in Bolivia: A study of the population of Bolivia through isonymy

In Bolivia, the Hispanic dual surname system is used. To describe the isonymic structure of Bolivia, the surname distribution of 12,139,448 persons registered in the 2006 census data was studied in 9 districts and 112 provinces of the nation, for a total of 23,244,064 surnames. The number of different surnames found was 174,922. Matrices of isonymic distances between the administrative units (districts and provinces) were constructed and tested for correlation with geographic distance. In the 112 provinces, isonymic distances were correlated with geographic distance (r = 0.545 ± 0.011 for Euclidean, 0.501 ± 0.012 for Nei's, and 0.556 ± 0.010 for Lasker's distance). The multiple regression of the surname effective number (α), equivalent to the allele effective number in a genetic system, was nonsignificant on latitude and longitude; however, it was highly significant and negative on altitude (r = ?0.72). Because the Andes extend from north to south in west‐central Bolivia, random inbreeding was lowest in the eastern districts, and highest in mountainous western Bolivia. Average α for the provinces was 122 ± 2; for the districts, it was 216 ± 29, and for the whole of Bolivia it was 213. The geographical distribution of α in the provinces is compatible with the settlement of subsequent groups of migrants moving from east and north toward the center and south of Bolivia. The relative frequency of indigenous surnames is correlated positively with altitude. This suggests that the country was populated by recent low‐density demic diffusion over a low‐density indigenous population. This may have been a common phenomenon in the immigration to tropical South America. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Population structure of rural settlements of Sakha Republic (Yakutia): Surname structure

The distributions of surnames have been studied in 12 rural ethnic territorial groups of Sakha Republic (Yakutia). The populations studied are characterized by considerable accumulation of individual surnames, the surname spectra of representative of different ethnic groups living in the same area substantially overlapping. The random isonymy, migration index, surname diversity, and the surname distribution redundancy index display geographic and ethnic differences. The isonymy relationship coefficients calculated for representatives of individual ethnic groups (Yakuts, Evens, and Russians) and for total populations of the settlements studied are determined by the geographic distances between the compared populations and the intensity of migrations.     

Surname distributions and their association with Y-chromosome markers in the Aleutian Islands

We examine surname distribution, origin, and association with Y-chromosome haplogroups in native communities from the Aleutian archipelago. The underlying hypothesis is that surnames and Y-chromosome haplogroups should be associated because both are paternally inherited markers. We used Lasker's coefficient of relationship through isonymy (R(ib) ) to identify the distribution of 143 surnames in the Aleutian Islands. The geographic distribution of surnames was explored both through frequency distribution and through the use of Mantel tests. Multidimensional scaling, chi-square, and Mantel tests were used to examine the relationship between surname and Y-chromosome markers. Overall, we observed that the distribution of surnames in the Aleutian archipelago is culturally driven rather than being one of paternal inheritance. Surnames follow a gradient from east to west, with high frequencies of Russian surnames found in western Aleut communities and high levels of non-Russian surnames found in eastern Aleut communities. A nonsignificant correlation (r = -0.0132; P = 0.436) was found between distance matrices based on haplogroups of the nonrecombining portion of the Y chromosome and surnames, although an association was found between non-Russian surnames and the predominantly non-Russian haplogroups (R1b, I1a, and I).     

Isonymic relationships in ethno-social categories (Argentinian colonial period) including illegitimate reproduction

Surnames provide a useful method to study the structure of human populations for which biological data are not available. The isonymic method has had multiple applications, but difficulties emerge when dealing with groups where extramarital reproduction is common and the sample size is small, and even more so when only paternal surnames are taken into account.Therefore, it could be of interest to retain female surnames, including those of unmarried mothers. This study was carried out using all birth records froman Argentinian population in the colonial period, which was characterized by the presence of different ethno-social groups (Spanish, Indian and 'Mestizo'or mixed Spanish-Indian) and various reproductive patterns regarding legitimacy. Coefficient of relationship by isonymy (Ri) kinship matrices between geographical populations were obtained, and the results derived from sets of surnames (paternal, maternal of legitimate and illegitimate children,and all surnames in the registers) compared. The results show similar surname distribution regardless of the set of surnames and group considered.Kinship Ri matrices using paternal surnames, maternal surnames of legitimate children, maternal surnames of illegitimate children, and the set of whole surnames showed the same relationships among populations, indicating a similar pattern for Spanish, Indian and Mixed ethno-social groups. Mantel test correlation between all pairs of matrices was significant in all different ethno-social groups. The results suggest that in populations with high illegitimacy, such as that studied here, it is possible to include maternal surnames, even corresponding to single mothers, in order to consider total reproduction and therefore maximize sample size.     

Genogeographic analysis of a subdivided population. II. Geography of random inbreeding (from frequency of surnames in Adygs)

An important characteristic of the genetic structure of populations, random inbreeding (interpopulation variation), was evaluated on the basis of quasi-genetic markers (surnames). The following methodological issues are considered: estimation of random inbreeding using the coefficient of isonymy fr in a subdivided population; a comparison of inbreeding levels calculated on the basis of surname frequencies using fr and Wright's FST; a comparison of inbreeding estimates obtained on the basis of surnames and genetic markers; inbreeding variation in populations of the same hierarchical rank; and planning of genetic studies of a subdivided population. The population of Adygs (an indigenous ethnic group of Northern Caucasus) was examined as a model subdivided population. The population system of Adygs is hierarchical. Parameters of random inbreeding were examined at each level of the system "ethnic group==>tribe==>geographic group of auls==>aul." Frequencies of surnames were collected subtotally. Data on frequencies of 1340 surnames in 61 auls representing all Adyg tribes were analyzed. In total, 60,000 people were examined. The inbreeding estimates obtained on the basis of Wright's FST and the coefficient of isonymy fr virtually coincided: for Adygs in general, FST x 10(2) = 2.13 and fr x 10(2) = 2.09. At the same time, the inbreeding level exhibited marked differences among tribes: in Shapsugs, these differences were an order of magnitude higher than in Kabardins (fr x 10(2) = 2.53 and 0.25, respectively). The inbreeding estimates for auls differed by two orders of magnitudes: fr x 10(2) = 0.07 and fr x 10(2) = 7.88. An analysis of ten auls yielded fully coinciding inbreeding estimates based on quasi-genetic (fr x 10(2) = 0.60) and classical (FST x 10(2) = 0.69) gene markers. Computer maps of surname distributions in Adygs (1340 maps) were constructed for the first time ever. Based on these maps, the map of random inbreeding in the Adyg population was obtained.     

Surnames and dialects in France: population structure and cultural evolution

To study the isonymy structure of France as related to local language variations, the surname distributions of 6.03 million telephone users registered for the year 2002 were analysed in the 21 conterminous regions, their 94 departments and in 809 towns of the Country. For regions and departments the differences among local dialects were quantified according to the dialecto-metrization of the Atlas Linguistique Fran?ais. We found that Lasker's distance between regions was correlated with geographic distance with r=0.692+/-0.040, while Euclidean (r=0.546+/-0.058) and Nei's (r=0.610+/-0.048) distances were less correlated. Slightly lower correlations were observed for departments. Also, dialectometric distance was correlated with geography (r=0.582+/-0.069 for regions and r=0.617+/-0.015 for departments). The correlations between Lasker and dialectometric matrix distances for regions and departments are r=0.625+/-0.046 and 0.544+/-0.014, respectively, indicating that the common cause generating surname and language diversity accounts for about 35% of the differentiation. Both Lasker and dialectometric distances identify very similar boundaries between Poitou, Centre, Bourgogne and Franche Comptée at the North, and Aquitaine, Limousin, Auvergne, Rh?ne-Alpes in the South. Average Fisher's alpha for France was 7877 the highest value observed for the European countries studied to date. The size of alpha in most French towns indicates considerable recent immigration.