Outline of a unified approach to physics,biology and sociology

The theory of organismic sets, introduced by N. Rashevsky (Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics,29, 139–152, 1967;30, 163–174, 1968), is developed further. As has been pointed out, a society is a set of individuals plus the products of their activities, which result in their interactions. A multicellular organism is a set of cells plus the products of their activities, while a unicellular organism is a set of genes plus the products of their activities. It is now pointed out that a physical system is a set of elementary particles plus the product of their activities, such as transitions from one energy level to another. Therefore physical, biological and sociological phenomena can be considered from a unified set-theoretical point of view. The notion of a “world set” is introduced. It consists of the union of physical and of organismic sets. In physical sets the formation of different structure is governed preponderantly by analytical functions, which are special type of relations. In organismic sets, which represent biological organisms and societies, the formation of various structures is governed preponderantly by requirements that some relations, which are not functions, be satisfied. This is called the postulate of relational forces. Inasmuch as every function is a relation (F-relation) but not every relation is a function (Q-relation), it has been shown previously (Rashevsky,Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics,29, 643–648, 1967) that the physical forces are only a special kind of relational force and that, therefore, the postulate of relational forces applies equally to physics, biology and sociology. By developing the earlier theory of organismic sets, we deduce the following conclusions: 1) A cell in which the genes are completely specialized, as is implied by the “one gene—one enzyme” principle, cannot be formed spontaneously. 2) By introducing the notion of organismic sets of different orders so that the elements of an organismic set of ordern are themselves organismic sets of order (n−1), we prove that in multicellular organisms no cell can be specialized completely; it performs, in addition to its special functions, also a number of others performed by other cells. 3) A differentiated multicellular organism cannot form spontaneously. It can only develop from simpler, less differentiated organisms. The same holds about societies. Highly specialized contemporary societies cannot appear spontaneously; they gradually develop from primitive, non-specialized societies. 4) In a multicellular organism a specialization of a cell is practically irreversible. 5) Every organismic set of ordern>1, that is, a multicellular organism as well as a society, is mortal. Civilizations die, and others may come in their place. 6) Barring special inhibitory conditions, all organisms multiply. 7) In cells there must exist specially-regulatory genes besides the so-called structural genes. 8) In basically identically-built organisms, but which are built from different material (proteins), a substitution of a part of one organism for the homologous part of another impairs the normal functioning (protein specificity of different species). 9) Even unicellular organisms show sexual differentiation and polarization. 10) Symbiotic and parasitic phenomena are included in the theory of organismic sets. Finally some general speculations are made in regard to the possibility of discovering laws of physics by pure mathematical reasoning, something in which Einstein has expressed explicit faith. From the above theory, such a thing appears to be possible. Also the idea of Poincaré, that the laws of physics as we perceive them are largely due to our psychobiological structure, is discussed.     

Organismic sets: Outline of a general theory of biological and social organisms

The discussion as to whether societies are organisms andvice versa has been going on for a long time. The question is meaningless unless a clear definition of the term “organism” is made. Once such a definition is made, the question may be answered by studying whether there exists any relational isomorphism between what the biologist calls an organism and what the sociologist calls society. Such a study should also include animal societies studied by ecologists. Both human and animal societies are sets of individuals together with certain other objects which are the products of their activities. A multicellular organism is a set of cells together with some products of their activities. A cell itself may be regarded as a set of genes together with the products of their activities because every component of the cell is either directly or indirectly the result of the activities of the genes. Thus it is natural to define both biological and social organisms as special kinds of sets. A number of definitions are given in this paper which define what we call here organismic sets. Postulates are introduced which characterize such sets, and a number of conclusions are drawn. It is shown that an organismic set, as defined here, does represent some basic relational aspects of both biological organisms and societies. In particular a clarification and a sharpening of the Postulate of Relational Forces given previously (Bull. Math. Biophysics,28, 283–308, 1966) is presented. It is shown that from the basic definitions and postulates of the theory of organismic sets, it folows that only such elements of those sets will aggregate spontaneously, which are not completely “specialized” in the performance of only one activity. It is further shown that such “non-specialized” elements undergo a process of specialization, and as a result of it their spontaneous aggregation into organismic sets becomes impossible. This throws light on the problem of the origin of life on Earth and the present absence of the appearance of life by spontaneous generation. Some applications to problems of ontogenesis and philogenesis are made. Finally the relation between physics, biology, and sociology is discussed in the light of the theory of organismic sets.     

"I'll see it when I believe it!"*: Investigating Nervous System/Reproductive System Interactions in Animal Organisms

From the time of August Weismann's characterization of fundamentaldifferences between the role of the reproductive system (topreserve the "immortal" germplasm) and the other, somatic tissuesof the organism (to maintain the organism) biologists have inheritedan interesting organismic conundrum. How, indeed, are we tounderstand the relationship between the somatic systems (especiallythe nervous system—that characterize the animal organism)and the reproductive system, within that organism? In this paperit is argued that: (1) neuron-gamete-organism interactions areessential, organismic phenomena that have scarcely begun tobe investigated; (2) with reference to at least three differentkinds of animals it is possible to determine developmental,structural, functional and behavioral relationships betweenthe (species-oriented) reproductive systems, and the (individual,organism-oriented) nervous systems of those animals; and (3)results of such investigations make sense only in terms of thepeculiar evolutionary history and environmental adaptationsof specific kinds of animal organisms.     

Studies on rickettsia-like organism disease of the tropical marine pearl oyster I: the fine structure and morphogenesis of pinctada maxima pathogen rickettsia-like organism

The present paper reports for the first time the discovery of a rickettsia-like organism (RLO) in the cultured tropical marine pearl oyster Pinctada maxima with mass mortality in the Hainan Province of China. This organism parasitizes the cytoplasm of host cells and forms intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusions. These organisms are extremely pleiomorphic in shape and average 967 x 551 nm in size, as measured in cross sections of transmission electron micrographs. The organisms exhibit clearly recognizable ultrastructural characteristics of prokaryotic bacteria-like cells, including two trilaminar membranes, an increasing electron-dense periplasmic ribosome zone, and a thread-like DNA nucleoidal structure. In addition to the above prokaryotic characteristics, the following unique biological characteristics were confirmed by TEM: (i) These organisms are usually located in host cells in two ways, namely, free in the cell cytoplasm and involved within membrane-limited phagolysosomes; (ii) The organisms exist in two morphological cell types, namely a small cell variant (SCV) and a large cell variant (LCV). The most important morphological difference between two cell types is that the SCV is obviously ribosome-rich in the periphery of the body, which makes SCV more electron-dense in the cytoplasm and narrower in the central nucleoid area than the LCV; (iii) Two propagative modes of the organisms, transverse binary fission and budding, are observed in cytoplasm and phagolysosomes of host cells under TEM, in which the budding is more often seen in phagolysosomes. These characteristics indicate that the organism is a separate species in the family Rickettsiaceae and should be classified into the genus Rickettsia. On the basis of the existence of the two propagative modes and two cell types, and intracellular location, we propose a developmental cycle for this organism which includes a vegetative differentiation stage to develop LCV by transverse binary fisson and a budding differentiation stage to develop resistant SCV. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.     

Climate sensitivity across marine domains of life: limits to evolutionary adaptation shape species interactions

Organisms in all domains, Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya will respond to climate change with differential vulnerabilities resulting in shifts in species distribution, coexistence, and interactions. The identification of unifying principles of organism functioning across all domains would facilitate a cause and effect understanding of such changes and their implications for ecosystem shifts. For example, the functional specialization of all organisms in limited temperature ranges leads us to ask for unifying functional reasons. Organisms also specialize in either anoxic or various oxygen ranges, with animals and plants depending on high oxygen levels. Here, we identify thermal ranges, heat limits of growth, and critically low (hypoxic) oxygen concentrations as proxies of tolerance in a meta‐analysis of data available for marine organisms, with special reference to domain‐specific limits. For an explanation of the patterns and differences observed, we define and quantify a proxy for organismic complexity across species from all domains. Rising complexity causes heat (and hypoxia) tolerances to decrease from Archaea to Bacteria to uni‐ and then multicellular Eukarya. Within and across domains, taxon‐specific tolerance limits likely reflect ultimate evolutionary limits of its species to acclimatization and adaptation. We hypothesize that rising taxon‐specific complexities in structure and function constrain organisms to narrower environmental ranges. Low complexity as in Archaea and some Bacteria provide life options in extreme environments. In the warmest oceans, temperature maxima reach and will surpass the permanent limits to the existence of multicellular animals, plants and unicellular phytoplankter. Smaller, less complex unicellular Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea will thus benefit and predominate even more in a future, warmer, and hypoxic ocean.     

Objectivistic views in biology: an obstacle to our understanding of self-organisation processes in aquatic ecosystems

• 1 Ecologists are frequently inspired by the mechanistic view of classical physics in which motion is reduced to the effect of external forces on defined states of observable objects. Accordingly, dynamic events in ecosystems are resolved into environmental influences acting upon given states of an organismic system. In this conceptional scheme, both the environmental influences and the organismic system are assumed to be describable by objectively determinable parameters.
• 2 The present article directs criticism at this objectivistic approach. Accordingly, it is shown that an objectivistic view of living systems does not account for the complexity of organismic interactions which are continuously modified in a directional manner to achieve certain end states. This is exemplified in the physiological adaptation of micro‐organisms to their abiotic and biotic environment. Here, a population of single cells tends towards a ‘multicellular organism’ in which energy utilisation is optimised. During an investigation of this physiological adaptation process the organisms also adapt to the imposed experimental conditions, rendering futile any analysis in mechanistic terms.
• 3 Owing to this property of physiological adaptation a distinct research strategy is called for to establish the nature and ecological significance of this directionality. This strategy must be based on the observation that the sensitivity of living systems to a given environmental stimulus depends on the organismic prehistory with respect to previous exposures to stimuli. Thus, from an analysis of the adaptive response of a natural population to a defined challenge, information about prior environmental conditions may be derived that could not be obtained by other means.
• 4 Examples for the application of this research strategy to environmental problems are given.

     

Contribution to the theory of organismic sets,III

In line with previous studies on organismic sets, the division of all organismic sets intogeneral autotrophic and heterotrophic is introduced. The first produce their food themselves from some external source of energy, which in general may be an energy of any kind. The others use other organismic sets as the source of their food and energy. On earth we know only one kind of generalgeneral autotrophic organismic sets, namely, the autotrophic plants which use solar radiation as their source of energy and for production of their own food. It is shown why autotrophic animals do not exist on earth except as microorganisms like, e.g.,Euglena. A rigorous proof of the previously derived theorem that in an organismic set of ordern>1 no element can be completely specialized is given. It requires the introduction of new postulates. Finally, in considering the organic world as a whole, the notion of organismic sets ofmixed order is introduced.     

Evolution and regulation of cellular periodic processes: a role for paralogues

Several cyclic processes take place within a single organism. For example, the cell cycle is coordinated with the 24 h diurnal rhythm in animals and plants, and with the 40 min ultradian rhythm in budding yeast. To examine the evolution of periodic gene expression during these processes, we performed the first systematic comparison in three organisms (Homo sapiens, Arabidopsis thaliana and Saccharomyces cerevisiae) by using public microarray data. We observed that although diurnal‐regulated and ultradian‐regulated genes are not generally cell‐cycle‐regulated, they tend to have cell‐cycle‐regulated paralogues. Thus, diverged temporal expression of paralogues seems to facilitate cellular orchestration under different periodic stimuli. Lineage‐specific functional repertoires of periodic‐associated paralogues imply that this mode of regulation might have evolved independently in several organisms.     

How Is Meaning Grounded in the Organism?

In this paper we address the interrelated questions of why and how certain features of an organism’s environment become meaningful to it. We make the case that knowing the biology is essential to understanding the foundation of meaning-making in organisms. We employ Miguel Nicolelis et al’s seminal research on the mammalian somatosensory system to enrich our own concept of brain-objects as the neurobiological intermediary between the environment and the consequent organismic behavior. In the final section, we explain how brain-objects advance the ongoing discussion of what constitutes a biosemiotic system. In general, this paper acknowledges Marcello Barbieri’s call for biology to make room for meaning, and makes a contribution to that end.     

The Trembley Effect or the birth of marine zoology

At a time when Europe was engaged in the War of Austrian succession, an unknown scholar, Abraham Trembley, managed to dramatically influence the course of the Natural Sciences. He focused his interest not only on the properties of a new organism, the polyp later named Hydra, and its freshwater environment, but also on the communication of his discoveries to the most estimable scholarly circles of his time. Under the patronage of influential scholars, Réaumur in Paris and Folkes in London, he forged a new perspective on a common object ? water. Everyone had seen a glass of water and through it he could project the concept of a wet laboratory and hence reshape the experimental practices of naturalists. His research propelled a surge of interest for investigation of the aquatic environment, a new line of investigative force that can be called the Trembley Effect. This effect pushed scholars to explore the shallow areas of water, to test the properties of tiny aquatic bodies, to examine the frontiers between organisms. Thanks to Trembley, it was the first time that, in a fully artificial setting, man could give life to an animal species, a practice that created for all of those who tried it, an enigmatic feeling of power that stirred passions for decades. Indeed this experimental approach that emerged in parallel to Linnaean classifications, inaugurated a new phase of Natural Sciences.     

Priming and memory of stress responses in organisms lacking a nervous system

Experience and memory of environmental stimuli that indicate future stress can prepare (prime) organismic stress responses even in species lacking a nervous system. The process through which such organisms prepare their phenotype for an improved response to future stress has been termed ‘priming’. However, other terms are also used for this phenomenon, especially when considering priming in different types of organisms and when referring to different stressors. Here we propose a conceptual framework for priming of stress responses in bacteria, fungi and plants which allows comparison of priming with other terms, e.g. adaptation, acclimation, induction, acquired resistance and cross protection. We address spatial and temporal aspects of priming and highlight current knowledge about the mechanisms necessary for information storage which range from epigenetic marks to the accumulation of (dormant) signalling molecules. Furthermore, we outline possible patterns of primed stress responses. Finally, we link the ability of organisms to become primed for stress responses (their ‘primability’) with evolutionary ecology aspects and discuss which properties of an organism and its environment may favour the evolution of priming of stress responses.     

Macroevolution: macrogenesis and typogenesis

One can distinguish two levels (and stages) of macroevolutionary processes: the lower (macrogenesis) and higher (typogenesis) ones. The macrogenesis represents macroevolutionary alterations of separate structures; the typogenesis is the forming of general Bauplan (type of organization) of a new macrotaxon on a base of initial macrogenesis. Discrete (or quantum) character of many macroevolutionary transformations is caused by various mechanisms, which are based on properties of integrated organismic systems and are characterized by threshold effect of their action. Initial macrogenesis can be resulted from the morphofunctional preadaptations; the pattern (or regime) transformations of morphofunctional organismic systems; emerging of dichotomy of morphogenetic programs and their following switching; the ontogenetic heterochronies (in particular, paedomorphosis); the allometric structural changes (and possibly some other mechanisms). The initial macrogenesis forms a base for qualitatively new adaptation and essentially influences on other systems in whole organism. That changes the selection vectors significantly. All these alterations trigger the typogenesis. The latter represents a complex of organismic systems transformations, integrated by selection and interconnections of various systems in whole organism. The important role in typogenesis belongs to the key alterations of some limiting organismic system that trigger and direct evolutionary changes of depended organismic systems. In course of typogenesis evolution, new macrotaxon occupies new adaptive zone.     

Haeckel und das Schöne in der Natur

The influential evolutionary biologist Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919), well‐known as a highly disputatious defender of Darwin's work, sought to unite science, philosophy, ethics and art in an all‐embracing world view that he called ?monism“. In this essay his ideas and reflections on aesthetics in nature and their application are reviewed. According to Haeckel, art should be based on motifs that are to be found in the diversity of life forms, which represent, in his opinion, the highest imagineable specification in aesthetics. Beauty in nature should open men's way to nature, and man must not place himself in opposition to nature. Haeckel himself, who was also a gifted artist, helped find the way to such an attitude by publishing thousands of drawings of organisms, mostly microscopically small marine species. His illustrations made organismic structures accessible that a broader public was previously almost unaware of. With these representations he was most influential in almost all areas of art around the turn of the century, including architecture, interior design, painting, glass art and furniture design.     

Budding Yeast for Budding Geneticists: A Primer on the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Model System

The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a powerful model organism for studying fundamental aspects of eukaryotic cell biology. This Primer article presents a brief historical perspective on the emergence of this organism as a premier experimental system over the course of the past century. An overview of the central features of the S. cerevisiae genome, including the nature of its genetic elements and general organization, is also provided. Some of the most common experimental tools and resources available to yeast geneticists are presented in a way designed to engage and challenge undergraduate and graduate students eager to learn more about the experimental amenability of budding yeast. Finally, a discussion of several major discoveries derived from yeast studies highlights the far-reaching impact that the yeast system has had and will continue to have on our understanding of a variety of cellular processes relevant to all eukaryotes, including humans.     

Two unusual budding bacteria isolated from a swimming pool

S ly , L.I. & H argreaves , M.H. 1984. Two unusual budding bacteria isolated from a swimming pool. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 56 , 479–486.
Two unusual strains of budding bacteria were isolated on a Millipore Pseudomonas Count Water Tester during routine monitoring of Pseudomonas aeruginosa counts in a swimming pool. The first isolate has been identified as Blastobacter sp. It was a yellow-pigmented, Gram negative rod-shaped organism with a polar holdfast by which it attached to solid surfaces or other cells to form rosettes. The cells reproduced by asymmetric division or budding at the free pole of the cell, producing motile daughter cells with a single polar flagellum. The second isolate, which has not yet been identified, was a red-pigmented, Gram negative rod-shaped organism which produced one or more buds at each pole of the cell. Cell division appears to occur by both binary fission and by budding. Both organisms were strict aerobes, catalase and oxidase positive and did not produce acid from glucose in Hugh and Leifson medium.     

Physiological ecology meets climate change

In this article, we pointed out that understanding the physiology of differential climate change effects on organisms is one of the many urgent challenges faced in ecology and evolutionary biology. We explore how physiological ecology can contribute to a holistic view of climate change impacts on organisms and ecosystems and their evolutionary responses. We suggest that theoretical and experimental efforts not only need to improve our understanding of thermal limits to organisms, but also to consider multiple stressors both on land and in the oceans. As an example, we discuss recent efforts to understand the effects of various global change drivers on aquatic ectotherms in the field that led to the development of the concept of oxygen and capacity limited thermal tolerance (OCLTT) as a framework integrating various drivers and linking organisational levels from ecosystem to organism, tissue, cell, and molecules. We suggest seven core objectives of a comprehensive research program comprising the interplay among physiological, ecological, and evolutionary approaches for both aquatic and terrestrial organisms. While studies of individual aspects are already underway in many laboratories worldwide, integration of these findings into conceptual frameworks is needed not only within one organism group such as animals but also across organism domains such as Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya. Indeed, development of unifying concepts is relevant for interpreting existing and future findings in a coherent way and for projecting the future ecological and evolutionary effects of climate change on functional biodiversity. We also suggest that OCLTT may in the end and from an evolutionary point of view, be able to explain the limited thermal tolerance of metazoans when compared to other organisms.     

The Unwhole Organism

The existence of gutless animals was known, and their putativenutritional processes investigated for several decades, beforethe sulfide-oxidizing symbiosis that sustains them was discovered.Research into the large, gutless Pogonophora of the marine,thermal vent communities, and the relatively large, gutless,bivalved mollusc Solemya reidi provided an adequate paradigmand stimulated exploration of the evolutionary impact of thesymbiosis. These "unwhole" organisms provide an epistemologicalmodel for studying the necessity, as well as the limitationsof the concept of organism. For non-parasitic gutless animals, and for others with reducedguts, a variety of reductionistic, adaptationistic and organicistichypotheses were advanced, but despite a general familiaritywith parallel symbioses there was a reluctance to transcendthe organismic mind-set Free-living sulfide-oxidizing bacteria inhabit a two-dimensionalenvironment: the interface between aerobic and anaerobic environments.A host, such as Solemya, adds a third dimension, regulatingthe supply of necessary oxygen and sulfide at the molecular,functional morphological, and behavioural levels. Morphologicalcorrelations of the symbiosis in bivalves include expansionof gills to house bacteria, paedomorphic reduction of outerdemibranchs and palps, and reduction or loss of siphons andguts. In S. reidi symbiont transmission appears to be vertical,i.e., an intimate transferral from one generation to the next. Initial failure to realise that gutless animals are sustainedby intracellular bacteria echoes the original response to theendosymbiotic theory of the origins of eukaryotes, which hada larger historical context. Yet evolution by association hasperiodically produced major advances in the history of organisms.While simplistic reductionism has a false allure, organicismalso has limitations that are illustrated by the above casehistory. Whether we identify ourselves as adaptationistic neo-Darwinists,or require that greater emphasis be placed on the evolutionof integrated dynamic wholes, as do the structuralists, we mustsomehow accommodate the ultraorganismic evolution of new "wholes"by the association of previously independent forms.     

Resistance of various strains of mycobacteria to killing by activated macrophages in vivo

A variety of experimental infections with pathogenic mycobacteria are associated with the development of persistent disease, in which little or no changes in the numbers of the infectious organism can be detected. This report describes a simple experimental model designed to test the hypothesis that this persistence may reflect in part the ability of these organisms to resist the enhanced bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties acquired by host macrophages as a result of these mycobacterial infections. To examine this possibility mice were inoculated with test organisms at a time when these animals were expressing very high levels of nonspecific resistance, and hence macrophage activation, as a result of a prior intravenous infection with Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG). The results show that the test organisms fall into three groups; (a) those, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which were sensitive to the presence of activated macrophages, (b) those, such as Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium kansasii, which were insensitive, and (c) one organism, Mycobacterium intracellulare, in which progressive growth of the infection was significantly improved. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that some mycobacteria, particularly those associated with persistent disease, possess an intrinsic resistance to host bactericidal and bacteriostatic mechanisms in vivo.     

Plant Communication from Biosemiotic Perspective: Differences in Abiotic and Biotic Signal Perception Determine Content Arrangement of Response Behavior. Context Determines Meaning of Meta-, Inter- and Intraorganismic Plant Signaling

As in all organisms, the evolution, development and growth of plants depends on the success of complex communication processes. These communication processes are primarily sign mediated interactions and not simply an exchange of information. They involve active coordination and active organization—conveyed by signs. A wide range of chemical substances and physical influences serve as signs.Different abiotic or biotic influences require different behaviors. Depending on the behavior, the core set of signs common to species, families, genera and organismic kingdoms is variously produced, combined and transported. This allows entirely different communication processes to be carried out with the same types of chemical molecules.Almost without exception, plant communication are parallel processes on multiple levels, (A) between plants and microorganisms, fungi, insects and other animals, (B) between different plant species as well as between members of the same plant species; (C), between cells and in cells of the plant organism.Key Words: multilevel plant communication, sign-mediated interactions, context-dependency     

The role of the uplift of the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau for the evolution of Tibetan biotas

Biodiversity is unevenly distributed on Earth and hotspots of biodiversity are often associated with areas that have undergone orogenic activity during recent geological history (i.e. tens of millions of years). Understanding the underlying processes that have driven the accumulation of species in some areas and not in others may help guide prioritization in conservation and may facilitate forecasts on ecosystem services under future climate conditions. Consequently, the study of the origin and evolution of biodiversity in mountain systems has motivated growing scientific interest. Despite an increasing number of studies, the origin and evolution of diversity hotspots associated with the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau (QTP) remains poorly understood. We review literature related to the diversification of organisms linked to the uplift of the QTP. To promote hypothesis‐based research, we provide a geological and palaeoclimatic scenario for the region of the QTP and argue that further studies would benefit from providing a complete set of complementary analyses (molecular dating, biogeographic, and diversification rates analyses) to test for a link between organismic diversification and past geological and climatic changes in this region. In general, we found that the contribution of biological interchange between the QTP and other hotspots of biodiversity has not been sufficiently studied to date. Finally, we suggest that the biological consequences of the uplift of the QTP would be best understood using a meta‐analysis approach, encompassing studies on a variety of organisms (plants and animals) from diverse habitats (forests, meadows, rivers), and thermal belts (montane, subalpine, alpine, nival). Since the species diversity in the QTP region is better documented for some organismic groups than for others, we suggest that baseline taxonomic work should be promoted.