Knowledge discovery in gene-expression-microarray data: mining the information output of the genome.

A key aspect of the genomics revolution is the transformation of large amounts of biological information into an electronic format, leading to an information-based approach to biomedical problems. Large-scale RNA assays and gene-expression-microarray studies, in particular, represent the second wave of the genomics revolution, providing gene-expression data that complement gene-sequence data and help our understanding of the molecular basis of health and disease. They are being applied at several stages in the drug-development process and could ultimately have broad applications in disease diagnosis and patient prognosis.     

Recent and future perspectives on engineering interferons and other cytokines as therapeutics

As crucial mediators and regulators of our immune system, cytokines are involved in a broad range of biological processes and are implicated in various disease pathologies. The field of cytokine therapeutics has gained much momentum from the maturation of conventional protein engineering methodologies such as structure-based designs and/or directed evolution, which is further aided by the advent of in silico protein designs and characterization. Just within the past 5 years, there has been an explosion of proof-of-concept, preclinical, and clinical studies that utilize an armory of protein engineering methods to develop cytokine-based drugs. Here, we highlight the key engineering strategies undertaken by recent studies that aim to improve the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profile of interferons and other cytokines as therapeutics.     

CRISPR/Cas9 and Genome Editing in Drosophila

Recent advances in our ability to design DNA binding factors with specificity for desired sequences have resulted in a revolution in genetic engineering, enabling directed changes to the genome to be made relatively easily. Traditional techniques for generating genetic mutations in most organisms have relied on selection from large pools of randomly induced mutations for those of particular interest, or time-consuming gene targeting by homologous recombination. Drosophila melanogaster has always been at the forefront of genetic analysis, and application of these new genome editing techniques to this organism will revolutionise our approach to performing analysis of gene function in the future. We discuss the recent techniques that apply the CRISPR/Cas9 system to Drosophila, highlight potential uses for this technology and speculate upon the future of genome engineering in this model organism.     

Life in the fast lane: mammalian disease models in the genomics era

Analyses of the human genome have proven extremely successful in identifying changes that contribute to human disease. Genetically engineered mice provide a powerful tool to analyze these changes, although they are slow and costly and do not always recapitulate human biology. Recent advances in genomic technologies, rodent-modeling approaches, and the production of patient-derived reprogrammed cell lines now provide a plethora of complementary systems to study disease states and test new therapies. Continued evolution and integration of these model systems will be the key to realizing the benefits of the genomic revolution and refining our understanding and treatment of human diseases.     

Generating high-yielding varieties by genetic manipulation of plant architecture

Despite a huge population increase since the 1960s, the green revolution more than doubled world grain production and averted large-scale famine. Food crop productivity will have to be further raised, however, because the world population is still increasing rapidly. Among several parameters associated with the increase in yield potential, genes that control plant height and tiller number (in cereal crops) have recently been identified. In addition, a promising strategy to generate semi-dwarf varieties has been developed. Recent advances in plant genome analyses and plant biotechnology will realize a second green revolution through the genetic engineering of food crops.     

Microbial production of lactate-containing polyesters

Due to our increasing concerns on environmental problems and limited fossil resources, biobased production of chemicals and materials through biorefinery has been attracting much attention. Optimization of the metabolic performance of microorganisms, the key biocatalysts for the efficient production of the desired target bioproducts, has been achieved by metabolic engineering. Metabolic engineering allowed more efficient production of polyhydroxyalkanoates, a family of microbial polyesters. More recently, non-natural polyesters containing lactate as a monomer have also been produced by one-step fermentation of engineered bacteria. Systems metabolic engineering integrating traditional metabolic engineering with systems biology, synthetic biology, protein/enzyme engineering through directed evolution and structural design, and evolutionary engineering, enabled microorganisms to efficiently produce natural and non-natural products. Here, we review the strategies for the metabolic engineering of microorganisms for the in vivo biosynthesis of lactate-containing polyesters and for the optimization of whole cell metabolism to efficiently produce lactate-containing polyesters. Also, major problems to be solved to further enhance the production of lactate-containing polyesters are discussed.     

探索新绿色革命的靶标

第一次绿色革命的潜力已经被充分利用,第二次绿色革命正在兴起。全世界的科学家都在探讨新绿色革命的靶标,包括改善核酮糖-1,5-二磷酸（RuBP）羧化酶／力口氧酶（Rubisco）、降低光呼吸和呼吸作用损失、提高RuBP再生能力、改造C3植物成为C4植物例如C4水稻、将蓝细菌的CO2浓缩机制引入c。植物、增加转运蛋白,以及改善作物根系、优化产物品质和加强作物对环境胁迫的抗性。这篇综述主要考察这些靶标的研究进展,并指出潜在的问题。尽管基因工程是一个强有力的工具,但是人们不应当把新绿色革命成功的希望全部寄托在它上面。一些传统的和非转基因的方法也将在这个革命中发挥重要的作用。这个革命的前途是光明的,但是获得成功所需要的时间可能要比一些人估计的15年长得多。     

Manipulation of small RNAs to modify the chicken transcriptome and enhance productivity traits

In recent years there has been a revolution in our understanding of genes and how they come to control the physical outcomes of development. Central to this has been the understanding of the cellular processes of RNA interference (RNAi), for which the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 2006. Coupled with this has been the recognition that microRNAs are key mediators of this process within cells. RNAi whether mediated exogenously by synthetic oligonucleotides or vector-delivered double stranded RNA or endogenously by microRNAs can have a profound and specific effect on gene expression. Elucidating and understanding these processes in the chicken will provide critical information to enable more precise control over breeding strategies for improvement of traits in production poultry, either by direct or indirect means. It will also provide alternative strategies for the control and prevention of important avian diseases.     

The use of bacterial polysaccharides in bioprinting

Additive manufacturing or 3D printing has spearheaded a revolution in the biomedical sector allowing the rapid prototyping of medical devices. The recent advancements in bioprinting technology are enabling the development of potential new therapeutic options with respect to tissue engineering and regenerative medicines. Bacterial polysaccharides have been shown to be a central component of the inks used in a variety of bioprinting processes influencing their key features such as the mechanical and thermal properties, printability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. However, the implantation of any foreign structure in the body comes with an increased risk of bacterial infection and immunogenicity. In recent years, this risk is being potentiated by the rise in nosocomial multidrug-resistant bacterial infections. Inks used in bioprinting are being augmented with antimicrobials to mitigate this risk. The applications of bacterial polysaccharide-based bioinks have the potential to act as a key battlefront in the war against antibiotic resistance. This paper reviews the range of bacterial polysaccharides used in bioprinting and discusses the potential of various bioactive polysaccharides to be integrated into these inks.     

Insect control with baculoviruses

Baculoviruses have been researched extensively for insect control. Three of their features have been particularly attractive: their host specificity and consequential environmental safety, their virulence in host insects, and their capability for causing disease epizootics. There have been four approaches to their use for insect control: as microbial insecticides for short-term insect population suppression, through seasonal colonization or a recurring "booster shot" for control of more than one pest generation, through introduction-establishment where the viral species or strain was not indigenous, and through environmental manipulation to make the ecosystem more favorable for viral epizootics. Actual usage of baculoviruses in pest management has been disappointing, particularly with the microbial insecticide approach, primarily for three reasons: economics, slow speed of kill, and adverse effects of the environment on the viruses. The recombinant-DNA revolution has greatly increased the prospects for baculoviruses in insect pest management.     

新的农业科技革命与农业生态学研究

阐述了以“双重绿芭革命”为主要特征的世界农业科技革命的趋势,指出中国新的农业科技革命是超出世界农业科技革命目标的多重绿色革命。农业生态学是实现多重以革命目标的两大关键技术之一。为了能使生态学家研究在新的农业科技革命中发挥应用的作用,必须进行生态研究的革命,即强化对农业生态学基本生态学过程听研究,面向农产品产量与品质提高的需求,加强产量生态学和品质生态学的研究,针对薄弱环节和社会发展急而开展促进中国     

几丁聚糖在组织工程中的应用

支架材料作为组织工程的生物学植入替代物,对细胞移植与引导新组织生长有重要的作用。几丁聚糖可制成无毒性,无刺激性,生物相容性和生物可降解性良好的生物医用材料,在人工皮肤,骨修复材料,手术缝线等方面已广泛应用。本文分析了纯几丁聚糖支架结构和它与其他天然或合成材料复合的支架结构的物理、化学性质及其独特的生物学功能,同时还进一步介绍了其应用的范例并探讨了发展前景。     

Human plasma proteome analysis by multidimensional chromatography prefractionation and linear ion trap mass spectrometry identification

A resurgence of interest in the human plasma proteome has occurred in recent years because it holds great promise of revolution in disease diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring. As one of the most powerful separation techniques, multidimensional liquid chromatography has attracted extensive attention, but most published works have focused on the fractionation of tryptic peptides. In this study, proteins from human plasma were prefractionated by online sequential strong cation exchange chromatography and reversed-phase chromatography. The resulting 30 samples were individually digested by trypsin, and analyzed by capillary reversed-phase liquid chromatography coupled with linear ion trap mass spectrometry. After meeting stringent criteria, a total of 1292 distinct proteins were successfully identified in our work, among which, some proteins known to be present in serum in <10 ng/mL were detected. Compared with other works in published literatures, this analysis offered a more full-scale list of the plasma proteome. Considering our strategy allows high throughput of protein identification in serum, the prefractionation of proteins before MS analysis is a simple and effective method to facilitate human plasma proteome research.     

Regulatory considerations for marker vaccines and diagnostic tests in the U.S.

Marker vaccines and diagnostic tests can prove to be invaluable in disease eradication and control programs, as was found in the pseudorabies (Aujeszky's Disease) virus eradication program in the U.S. During that campaign, numerous gene-deleted vaccines and companion diagnostic test kits were used to differentiate infected animals from vaccinated animals, in a strategy that ultimately led to eradication of the disease in commercial swine herds. The United States Department of Agriculture played a key role in delivery of that success by developing biologics policy, evaluating each product, and ensuring that the conditions of licensure were met. What was most critical in the overall eradication effort, however, was the detailed and dedicated interaction among key players: the biologics regulators, manufacturers, Federal, State, and local regulatory partners, veterinary researchers, industry associations, and animal owners. A good disease control program has to include all of these. The regulatory requirements for licensure of marker vaccines and diagnostic test kits are not different from that for other products. There are several mechanisms for vaccine approval, some more rapid than others, but only a few that could apply to these products. Generally, the platforms that might support marker vaccines and companion diagnostic kits are those based on genetic engineering or protein manipulation. If the product is derived from the application of biotechnology, then additional regulatory considerations are applicable. Most important of these are the considerations found in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), wherein deliberate release of any organism containing recombinant DNA into the environment is subject to review and approval by appropriate federal agencies. Environmental release and NEPA compliance are discussed.     

家马的驯化起源与遗传演化特征

人类文明发展历史中, 家马(Equus ferus caballus)曾是推动文化交流、促进人类社会发展的主要动力。关于家马何时、何地被驯化以及在此过程中其遗传演化如何被人类影响等一直备受关注。近年来随着遗传学技术的发展, 人们对该问题有了更为深入的理解。本文回顾了近二十年来相关研究所取得的成果, 探讨了家马的驯化起源中心和驯化过程中的遗传演化特征, 并对未来的研究方向以及遗传资源保护提出了建议。分子标记遗传学和考古学研究认为家马可能来自多个驯化起源地种群, 然而最近的古DNA研究结果表明, 现代家马的驯化起源可能比之前人们所猜测的更加复杂, 古代博泰马被认为是最早被驯化的家马, 然而最近被证实并不是现代家马的直系祖先。如此复杂的驯化问题可能从多学科的层次才能解析清楚。人类社会活动直接或间接影响了家马的演化历程, 特别是工业革命以来家马的遗传基础发生了巨大变化, 其遗传多样性开始急剧衰退, 不少地方品种正逐渐走向衰落甚至灭绝。为确保农业生态安全不受威胁, 建议加强家马遗传资源保护与动物遗传学和文化地理之间的联系研究。     

Potential hazards of biotechnology: the viewpoint from the United Kingdom

(1) There is a danger that our science may be severely restricted in the future if we do not as scientists take action to inform the public. (2) Scientists are agreed that some governmental controls are essential, but there is an urgent need that these should be applied uniformly worldwide. (3) The situation has changed rapidly now that the scientists are poised to demonstrate that genetic engineering has advanced to the stage where it can be applied to the field. Only in that way can we, as scientists, demonstrate that biotechnology can help humanity to overcome the problems of health, disease, and decent living which threaten to get progressively worse.     

酶的分子定向进化及其应用

酶的分子定向进化是20世纪90年代初兴起的一种蛋白质工程的新策略,是一种在生物体外模拟自然进化过程的、具有一定目的性的快速改造蛋A质的方法.该方法引起了生物催化技术领域的又一次革命.目前分子定向进化技术已被广泛应用于工业、农业及制药业等的相关领域.本文详细综述了酶的分子定向进化的概念、过程、基本策略及其核心技术,并着重介绍了酶的分子定向进化技术在提高酶的活力、稳定性、底物特异性和对映体选择性等几方面的应用及取得的相关成果.     

Strategies for metabolic pathway engineering with multiple transgenes

The engineering of metabolic pathways in plants often requires the concerted expression of more than one gene. While with traditional transgenic approaches, the expression of multiple transgenes has been challenging, recent progress has greatly expanded our repertoire of powerful techniques making this possible. New technological options include large-scale co-transformation of the nuclear genome, also referred to as combinatorial transformation, and transformation of the chloroplast genome with synthetic operon constructs. This review describes the state of the art in multigene genetic engineering of plants. It focuses on the methods currently available for the introduction of multiple transgenes into plants and the molecular mechanisms underlying successful transgene expression. Selected examples of metabolic pathway engineering are used to illustrate the attractions and limitations of each method and to highlight key factors that influence the experimenter’s choice of the best strategy for multigene engineering.     

A new source of endothelial progenitor cells--vascular biology redefined?

The initial discovery of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) in tandem with emerging concepts in stem cell biology has generated enormous interest and excitement in fields as diverse as tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and tumor and vascular biology. A recent paper by Ingram et al. identifies a complete hierarchy of EPCs in the vessel wall, providing a new framework for classification of cells supporting endopoiesis akin to that previously established for hematopoiesis. This could have fundamental implications for our understanding of the role of the endothelium and, more specifically, the role of EPC interfacing with the vessel wall in health and disease.