Afrotropical Cynipoidea (Hymenoptera)

The Afrotropical Cynipoidea are represented by 306 described species and 54 genera in four families: Cynipidae, Figitidae, Liopteridae and Ibaliidae, the latter represented by a single introduced species. Seven of these genera are only represented by undescribed species in the region. Seven new genus-level synonymies, one genus resurrected from synonymy, 54 new combinations, one combination reinstated, and one new replacement name are presented. We provide identification keys to the families, subfamilies and genera of cynipoid wasps occurring in the Afrotropical region (Africa south of the Sahara, including Madagascar and southern Arabian Peninsula). Online interactive Lucid Phoenix and Lucid matrix keys are available at: http://www.waspweb.org/Cynipoidea/Keys/index.htm. An overview of the biology and checklists of species for each genus are provided. This paper constitutes the first contributory chapter to the book on Afrotropical Hymenoptera.     

Taxonomy of Allobethylus Kieffer (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae) from southeastern Asia

Two new species of Allobethylus Kieffer, 1905 are described and illustrated. Allobethylus korystus sp. nov. from Thailand is characterized as having a mandible with four apical teeth, a clypeus with a trapezoidal frontal profile and a pronotal declivity with a conspicuous crest. The last two traits are new characteristics to the genus. Allobethylus lamprus sp. nov. from Myanmar is characterized as having a mandible with three apical teeth, a clypeus with a triangular frontal profile and a bidentate median lobe. Additionally, A. multicolor Kieffer is recorded for the first time from Thailand. An updated world key to the species of genus is also provided.     

First record of Vanhorniidae (Hymenoptera: Proctotrupoidea) from Korea

The family Vanhorniidae Crawford, 1909 was recorded for the first time in Korea. As a result of a taxonomic study of the Korean Vanhorniidae, we report on one species, Vanhornia eucnemidarum Crawford, 1909. A diagnosis and photographs of diagnostic characteristics are provided.     

Taxonomical studies on Oriental Platygastridae (Hymenoptera: Platygastroidea)

14 species new to science are described, viz. Amblyaspis joenssoni, Euxestonotus sabahensis, Leptacis cheyi (all from Malaysia), L. jani (from Laos), L. maliauensis (from Malaysia), L. ongkudoni (from Malaysia), L. pederseni (from Laos), L. reticulaticeps (from Malaysia), L. solodovnikovi, L. vilhelmseni (both from Laos), Sacespalus viklundi (from Malaysia), Synopeas laosianum (from Laos), S. opaciceps and S. waidii (both from Malaysia). The following species described in Leptacis by Ushakumari, R., Narendran, T.C., 2007. A taxonomic revision of Leptacis Foerster (Hymenoptera: Platygasteridae) of India. Rec. Zool. Surv. India 107, 7–32 are transferred to Synopeas: L. aeros, L. alus, L. asiaticus, L. benazeer, L. diversus, L. manii, L. mustus, L. nuperus and L. scaposus. Synopeas saltaense is a nom. nov. for S. intermedius Buhl, 2005 preoccupied by S. intermedius (Ushakumari, R., 2004. Diversity of Platygaster Latreille (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) of Kerala. In Rajmohana, K., Narendran, T.C., Perspectives on biosystematics and biodiversity: Prof. T. C. Narendran commemoration volume. Systematic Entomology Research Scholars Association, University of Calicut, Kozhikode, India, pp. 573–591). New locality records for 20 already known Oriental platygastrid species are given.     

New Angarosphecidae (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Apoidea) from the Lower Cretaceous of Northeastern China

Two new species of the family Angarosphecidae, Angarosphex saxosus sp. nov. and Vitimosphex vividus sp. nov., from the Lower Cretaceous Yixian Formation of northeastern China are described and illustrated. Generic diagnoses are revised. The genera Palaeapis Hong, 1984, Mataeosphex: Zhang, 1985, and Calobaissodes Zhang, 1992 are synonymized under Angarosphex Rasnitsyn, 1975, and new combinations Angarosphex beiboziensis (Hong, 1984), comb. nov., Angarosphex venulosus (Zhang, 1985), comb. nov., and Angarosphex strigosus Zhang, 1992, comb. nov. are proposed. The genus Vitimosphex Rasnitsyn, 1975 is found reaching northeastern China in its distribution. New morphological data are presented to complete characteristics of the genera concerned.     

Molecular phylogeny of Trissolcus species (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae)

Trissolcus species (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) are the most promising biological control agents against sunn pest. The accurate identification of natural enemies is crucial in order to develop successful biological control programs. This paper presents phylogenetic analyses of Trissolcus species based on data sets consisting of 18S, 28S, ITS1, ITS2 and cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) genes. The most commonly used genetic loci in Trissolcus species identification is the cytochrome oxidase I gene (COI). Also restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses of PCR amplified COI gene have been developed to discriminate closely related species. We suggest that Trissolcus grandis Thompson and Trissolcus semistriatus Nees split significantly into two different genetic groups while there is another species diverging from T. semistriatus which is decsribed as ‘Trissolcus flavotibialis Kocak & Guz, n. sp.’     

Interactions between Spathius agrili (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Tetrastichus planipennisi (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), larval parasitoids of Agrilus planipennis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Three hymenopteran parasitoids native to China are being released in the United States as biological control agents for the emerald ash borer (EAB), Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, an Asian buprestid species responsible for mortality of ash trees (Fraxinus spp.) in North America. Two of these hymenopterans, Spathius agrili Yang (Braconidae), a larval ectoparasitoid, and Tetrastichus planipennisi Yang (Eulophidae), a larval endoparasitoid, prefer late-instar EAB larvae. This overlapping host preference raises concerns that interspecific competition following field releases may compromise establishment of one or both species. In a series of laboratory and field experiments, we found S. agrili and T. planipennisi exhibited similar parasitism rates when presented alone with EAB larvae for 12–14 days. However, S. agrili was more efficient at locating and parasitizing hosts within the first 27 h, possibly explaining why S. agrili excluded T. planipennisi in the laboratory trials and nearly excluded T. planipennisi in field trials when the two species were presented together with EAB larvae. We found that S. agrili parasitized larvae previously parasitized by T. planipennisi but not the reverse. However, S. agrili offspring failed to complete development on hosts that were previously parasitized by T. planipennisi. We recommend releasing these species separately in time or space to avoid the antagonistic interactions observed in this study.     

Bionomics of Orasema simplex (Hymenoptera: Eucharitidae), a parasitoid of Solenopsis fire ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Argentina

Biological characteristics of the parasitoid Orasema simplex Heraty (Hymenoptera: Eucharitidae), a potential candidate for the biological control of fire ants in the United States were investigated. Female survivorship, fertility and oviposition preferences were studied in the laboratory. Naturally parasitized colonies were examined to determine offspring sex ratio, development success and time, and to artificially parasitize healthy ant colonies. In addition, field studies were carried out to establish natural oviposition substrates and adult activity patterns. Orasema simplex female survivorship was 3.6 ± 1.5 days. Newly emerged females contained 613.5 ± 114.0 mature eggs. The adult development success in natural parasitized colonies was 22.2% with a female-biased sex ratio (4:1). The time required from planidia to adult was 29.5 ± 5.4 days. In the field, adults were mostly found around the ant nests at midday. A broad range of plant species was observed as oviposition substrates. The transfer of planidia to healthy ant colonies was achieved but the development success was very low. Orasema simplex appears to have a limited potential as a fire ant biocontrol agent because of cosmetic damage to a wide variety of plants used for oviposition. However, further studies are necessary to evaluate the real damage exerted by oviposition punctures.     

Interactions between Phaedrotoma scabriventris Nixon (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Diglyphus isaea Walker (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), parasitoids of Liriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Liriomyza leafminer flies represent a serious threat to horticultural production in East Africa. Total field parasitism rates recorded in Kenya are below 5%, with the indigenous ectoparasitoid Diglyphus isaea Walker being one of the key parasitoid species. The International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), in collaboration with the International Potato Centre (CIP), imported into Kenya the endoparasitoid Phaedrotoma scabriventris Nixon to improve natural control of leafminers. The objective of this study was to investigate the interactions between D. isaea and P. scabriventris when used together for the biological control of Liriomyza species. These interactions were studied under laboratory conditions, using treatments that involved single, simultaneous and sequential releases of the different parasitoid species onto plants infested by L. huidobrensis larvae. While used separately, parasitism rates of D. isaea and P. scabriventris were 30.4 ± 10.9% and 63.6 ± 7.7% respectively. However, when used simultaneously, the total parasitism rate increased to 77.0 ± 5.3%. Although P. scabriventris had no effect on D. isaea, the presence of D. isaea reduced the specific parasitism rate of P. scabriventris. In addition, both parasitoids induced leafminer mortality through larval-feeding and stinging. However, feeding and stinging mortality induced by D. isaea (41.9 ± 9.1%) was significantly higher compared to P. scabriventris (11.9 ± 8.7). Similarly, pupal mortality due to feeding and stinging activity was 49.1 ± 6.5% and 21.6 ± 1.9% when exposed to D. isaea and P. scabriventris respectively. The implication for simultaneous use of both parasitoids in East Africa is discussed.     

The complete mitochondrial genome of Taeniogonalos taihorina (Bischoff) (Hymenoptera: Trigonalyidae) reveals a novel gene rearrangement pattern in the Hymenoptera

The family Trigonalyidae is considered to be one of the most basal lineages in the suborder Apocrita of Hymenoptera. Here, we determine the first complete mitochondrial genome of the Trigonalyidae, from the species Taeniogonalos taihorina (Bischoff, 1914). This mitochondrial genome is 15,927 bp long, with a high A + T-content of 84.60%. It contains all of the 37 typical animal mitochondrial genes and an A + T-rich region. The orders and directions of all genes are different from those of previously reported hymenopteran mitochondrial genomes. Eight tRNA genes, three protein-coding genes and the A + T-rich region were rearranged, with the dominant gene rearrangement events being translocation and local inversion. The arrangements of three tRNA clusters, trnY–trnM–trnI–trnQ, trnW–trnL2–trnC, and trnH–trnA–trnR–trnN–trnS–trnE–trnF, and the position of the cox1 gene, are novel to the Hymenoptera, even the insects. Six long intergenic spacers are present in the genome. The secondary structures of the RNA genes are normal, except for trnS2, in which the D-stem pairing is absent.     

Chromosomes of Ichneumonidae (Hymenoptera): New results and conclusions

New data were obtained on the karyotypes of 12 parasitic wasp species of the family Ichneumonidae: Scambus detritus (2n = 28), S. vesicarius (2n = 28), Pimpla contemplator (2n = 36), Theronia atalantae (2n = 24), Stenomacrus sp. 2 (n = 18, 2n = 36), Phygadeuon sp. 3 (2n = 32), Ichneumon memorator (2n = 24), I. vorax (2n = 22), Lymantrichneumon disparis (2n = 26), Orthopelma mediator (n = 15, 2n = 30), Lissonota buccator (2n = 22), and Trichionotus flexorius (2n = 16). Chromosomes of Anomaloninae were studied for the first time. The data on the karyotype structure of the subfamily Orthopelmatinae were revised. Various aspects of chromosome variability in Ichneumonidae are discussed.     

An endoparasitic species of Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) attacking Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

A solitary endoparasitic species of Pteromalidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) was reared from pupae of an aphidophagous gall midge, Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondani) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), in Japan. The parasitoid was identified as Gastrancistrus fuscicornis Walker, a species that has been recorded from Europe. An unidentified aphid has been proposed as being a host of G. fuscicornis, but the study reported here confirmed that G. fuscicornis is an endoparasitoid of A. aphidimyza. I consider that G. fuscicornis may not be a parasitoid of aphid. I found a nontentorial pit on the head of male and female of G. fuscicornis. According to the definition of the nontentorial pits, the pit found in G. fuscicornis corresponds to the facial pit. This is the first finding of the facial pit in Chalcidoidea. Morphological differences between G. fuscicornis and its allied species are provided.     

Predation on the woodwasp Tremex longicollis Konow (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) and its parasitoid Megarhyssa jezoensis (Matsumura) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) adults during oviposition

Adults of the woodwasp Tremex longicollis Konow (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) oviposit in the wood of dying Celtis sinensis trees using their ovipositors, and adults of the parasitoid Megarhyssa jezoensis (Matsumura) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) deposit eggs into the woodwasp larvae that live in the wood, also using their long ovipositors. Many T. longicollis ovipositors, both with and without abdominal segments, and a M. jezoensis ovipositor were found stuck in C. sinensis wood at two parks in Osaka Prefecture, central Japan. Field observations showed that ovipositing woodwasps and parasitoids were attacked by predators during the daytime, and their ovipositors were left behind in the wood. Woodwasps and their parasitoids, which have long ovipositors, may be vulnerable to predation during oviposition.     

Mitogenome evolution in Cephini (Hymenoptera: Cephidae): Evidence for parallel adaptive evolution

Two mitogenomes of remarkable size of the stem-boring sawflies, Trachelus tabidus (18539 bp) and T. iudaicus (20730 bp), were characterized and compared with previously known mitogenomes of Cephini. A rearrangement in the IQM gene cluster, an unusual elongation in rrnS gene and supposedly functional tandem repeat sequences in the A+T-rich region are synapomorphies of Cephini. Mitogenome evolution of the Cephini was investigated in a dataset of seven species representing all genera. The noticeably divergent mitogenomes of the Cephini both at nucleotide and amino acid level, and the variable rates of ω values, indicate the effects of different selective forces, rather than neutral evolution. The effect of positive selection is revealed by radical amino acid changes with ten physicochemical properties (P_α, B_r, pK′, h, E_l, H_nc, α_c, α_n, R_a and H_p) throughout each branch of the tree. The radical changes in the ND and ATP complexes are mostly related to chemical and energetic properties due to different energy requirements among species. The phenology of Cephini species and their host plants, together with habitat structure, rather than host plant preferences or phylogenetic constraint, are suggested to explain the role of adaptive evolution in shaping Cephini mitogenomes.     

Three new species of genus Myrmica (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) from Himalaya

Three new species of the genus Myrmica are described from the Himalayas. Myrmica curvispinosa sp. nov., Myrmica kothiensis sp. nov. and Myrmica religiosa sp. nov. belong to the Myrmica inezae species group, which is earlier represented by 4 species. Myrmica curvispinosa sp. nov. is described based on worker and gyne, with a report of ergatoid as well. Myrmica kothiensis sp. nov. and Myrmica religiosa sp. nov. are described based on worker caste only. A key to the species of the Myrmica inezae species group has been provided in the following.     

New data on chromosomes of Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera)

Karyotypes of twelve species of chalcidoid wasps from five families were studied for the first time: Baryscapus endemus and B. galactopus (2n = 12), Entedon parvicalcar and E. procioni (n = 6), and E. sparetus (2n = 12; all Eulophidae); Sycophila submutica (2n =16; Eurytomidae); Cerchysius subplanus (n = 11 and 2n = 22; Encyrtidae); Pteromalus cioni (2n =10; Pteromalidae); Pseudotorymus sp., Torymus microstigma, T. rubi, and Torymus sp. (all with 2n = 12; Torymidae). Various aspects of chromosomal diversity of Chalcidoidea are discussed.     

Intercolony transplantation of Oecophylla smaragdina (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) larvae

Oecophylla ants are utilized for biological control in fruit plantations in Australia and Asia. In Asia, queen larvae and alates are sold on commercial markets for human and animal consumption. This double utilization has induced an increasing interest in the domestication of these ants, but attempts to rear live colonies have been hindered partly by the length of time it takes from the founding of a colony until it can be utilized commercially. Early growth of a colony may be increased if ants from other colonies are adopted. The present experiments show that Oecophylla smaragdina larvae transplanted from other colonies are readily tolerated by non-nestmate workers and are reared to imagos. These results are fundamental for the future domestication of Oecophylla and elucidate the need for further studies of chemical nestmate recognition.     

Development and morphological characterization of the immature stages of Tetrastichus giffardianus Silvestri (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)

The gregarious endoparasitoid Tetrastichus giffardianus Silvestri (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is a natural enemy of fruit flies. This parasitoid was previously used to successfully control Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Hawaii, USA. Despite its importance in the control of fruit fly pests, little is known about the development or characteristics of its preimaginal stages. The aim of this study was to observe the development and morphologically characterize the immature stages of Tetrastichus giffardianus. Tetrastichus giffardianus individuals were reared on C. capitata larvae/pupae under laboratory conditions at a temperature of 25 ± 2 °C, relative humidity of 60 ± 10%, and 12-h photophase. Third-instar C. capitata larvae were exposed to parasitism for 24 h. After parasitism, the pupae were dissected every 24 h to evaluate the stage of development attained by T. giffardianus, and to record their morphological characteristics. A stereomicroscope was used to observe all the immature stages of T. giffardianus. The complete development of T. giffardianus under these conditions was completed within 14 days as follows: egg (duration ? 1 day); first (? 1 day), second (? 1 day), and third (? 2 days) larval instars; pre-pupa (? 2 days); and pupa (? 7 days). The immature stages of T. giffardianus differed sufficiently in their shape, color, and size to allow morphological characterization.     

稻纵卷叶螟绒茧蜂对寄主的搜索行为

稻纵卷叶螟绒茧蜂是稻纵卷叶螟幼虫的重要天敌。以Y形嗅觉仪测定了稻纵卷叶螟2—3龄幼虫虫粪、4—5龄幼虫虫粪、健康水稻、稻纵卷叶螟幼虫为害后水稻在纵卷叶螟绒茧蜂对寄主的搜索过程中的作用。结果表明已交配的雌蜂显著趋向稻纵卷叶螟2—3龄幼虫虫粪和4—5龄幼虫虫粪,不趋向健康水稻、稻纵卷叶螟幼虫为害后的水稻。雄蜂、处女雌蜂不显著趋向健康水稻、稻纵卷叶螟幼虫为害后水稻、稻纵卷叶螟2—3龄幼虫虫粪、稻纵卷叶螟4—5龄幼虫虫粪。利用固相微萃取(SPME)及气相色谱/质谱(GC/MS)联用分析稻纵卷叶螟2—3龄幼虫虫粪的化学成分,并通过Y-形嗅觉仪测试已交配雌蜂对稻纵卷叶螟2—3龄幼虫虫粪化学成分标准品的嗅觉反应,结果表明已交配的雌蜂显著趋向1-十一烯和异缬草醛,稻纵卷叶螟幼虫虫粪中的1-十一烯和异缬草醛可能是稻纵卷叶螟绒茧蜂搜索寄主的利他素。     

Ultrastructure of the natural and factitious host eggs of Trichogramma galloi Zucchi and Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae)

The surface and structure of the chorion of eggs of Diatraea saccharalis (F.) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), Anticarsia gemmatalis (Huebner), Heliothis virescens F., Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Sitotroga cerealella (Oliver) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), Ephestia kuehniella Zeller and Corcyra cephalonica Stainton (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), that are hosts of Trichogramma galloi Zucchi and Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) were studied on SEM and TEM. Other characteristics of these eggs, such as changes in their color during embryonic development, size and volume were also recorded. Sculpturing and texture of the surface of the chorion greatly varied among the species studied, as well as the number of layers of the chorion and their thickness. Eggs of the factitious hosts were among the smallest and their volume was very close to each other. All these characteristics would provide basic information for a better understanding of the host selection behavior and are useful for the development of a suitable artificial host egg for the in vitro rearing of these egg parasitoids.